生物科學史 階段報告 2

1. 生物科學史階段報告 2 健康照護博士班 護理組 葉莉莉

2. 近代生物學的研究主題 • 生源論 • 構造與生命現象 • 生物個體發育 • 進化論 • 遺傳與優生學

3. Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975) Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution 沒有一件事可以在 不參照其歷史的情況下被完全理解！！ 演化論之歷史意義 ---此問題具有 最長的時間尺度 蘇俄 Geneticist

4. 演化論在生物學中的地位 為何與如何？ • 為何植物會朝向有陽光的地方生長？ • 為何植物的祖先演化出尋光生長的能力？ 演化論者企圖型構終極之解釋 （phylogenetic explanation） 歐陽敏譯（2000）生物演化的哲學思維.台北：韋伯。

5. Evolution's historical roots Ancient Greeks Thales (~624-546 BC) He proposed the first naturalistic cosmology in which the cosmos arose from water http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls

6. Evolution's historical roots Ancient Greeks Anaximander (~611-546 BC) Thales' student ：proposed "a complete theory of evolution," • Life arose out of a primordial mud, producing animals, plants and then human beings. • Humans were originally formed as fishes, lived in the water, and then cast off their fish-skin, then went up and lived on dry land. http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls

7. Evolution's historical roots Ancient Greeks Empedocles (~495-435 BC)philosopher and poet “ The father of the evolution idea" proposed a theory of abiogenesis, or spontaneous generation. • Plants first, and animals later • Teaching contained theory of the survival of the fittest, or natural selection“. http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls

8. Evolution's historical roots Ancient Greeks Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) • Organisms ranged from being relatively simple to extremely complex. • Nature passed from inanimate objects to plants and then to animals. • All living things could be arranged on a scale of increasing complexity. http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html

9. Evolution's historical roots Ancient Greeks Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Great Chain of Being---a "ladder of life" and each species has an allotted rung along this ladder. • Species are fixed or permanent and do not evolve. • Aristotle's world view was entrenched in the minds of western philosophers for some two thousand years. http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.htm

10. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) http://www.aboutdarwin.com/pictures/Pictures.html

11. About Darwin… 青春時代的漂泊---對博物學的興趣 • 與美國總統林肯同年、月、日誕生。 • 父親是醫生，母親是陶工的女兒。祖父伊拉斯莫斯．達爾文是名醫兼博物學家及詩人。 • 少年時非優等生，熱衷於採集植物及昆蟲，對希臘語及拉丁語不感興趣。 • 父親本想讓其學習法律 愛丁堡學醫(對醫不感興趣，見習外科手術嚇得魂不附體)　　劍矯大學學做牧師 在Henslow指導下，閱讀許多動植物書籍。

12. 航海歷史記事 • 1405 鄭和下西洋（印度.阿拉伯.非洲） • 1492 哥倫布發現美洲 • 1498 葡萄牙人至印度 • 1517 葡萄牙人至廣州 • 1519-1522 麥哲倫航行世界 • 1624 荷蘭人佔領台灣 • 1831-1836 達爾文航海記

13. 生物學研究有成就之航海船 The Endeavour(竭力號)—1768 Jams Banks(1743-1820) The Investigator(調查號)-1801 Robert Brown The Beagle(小獵犬號)-1831-1836 Charles Darwin(1809-1882) ，出航時僅22歲 The Challenger(挑戰者號)-1872-1876 Charle W. Thompson(1830-1882) http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/voyage/falkland.htm

14. Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836) 小獵犬號其他任務 • 量測智利、秘魯的海岸和太平洋島嶼 • 利用環繞地球的機會鑑定精密計時計--- 供天文觀測用，可決定經度，是當時天文學、大地測量學的重要課題。 • 送回初航時由火地島帶往英國的三位原住民。

15. Darwin and Beagle’s Voyage 出航 • 許多襯衫、拖鞋、衣物 • 手槍、步槍、照相機 (1841) • 書籍---西班牙書、希臘遺囑 Lyell’s Principle of Geology (1830-1833)三卷 Milton’s Poems

16. Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836) • 242噸之船 • 備有一帆船及2補鯨小船，76名工作人員

17. Darwin’s Voyage 劍橋大學植物學教授--John Henslow 船長--海軍上校Robert Fitz-Roy (比Darwin大四歲) 　　 達爾文與其關係原不融洽 (宗教信仰) 認同達爾文觀察事物的態度和採集博物的積極作風 選定小獵犬號航線上的三個地方以達爾文為名 火地島(Tierra de Fuego)的「達爾文山」和「達爾文海峽」及澳洲的「達爾文港」

18. Darwin’s Voyage(1831.12.27-1836.10.2)

19. Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836) http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/voyage/falkland.htm

20. Darwin’s Voyage (1831-1836) The Voyage Home Africa Australia

21. Darwin’s Voyage 到達南美洲積極採集標本 • l832年l月6日抵達加那利群島的田內瑞非島，7月26日到達烏拉圭的孟都 • 此後兩年往返於此地和南美洲南瑞，量測拉布拉他河南方、南美洲東海岸和南端等地方。 • 達爾文數次離船，前往阿根廷的布蘭加灣和布宜諾斯艾利斯、拉布拉他河下游流域、巴塔哥尼亞、福克蘭群島、合恩角附近等地採集旅行。

22. Darwin’s Voyage 很久以前，草原曾是巨型動物的棲息地 • 達爾文在由布蘭加灣往布宜諾斯艾利斯的旅途中，發現巨獸化石：大樹懶….，已絕跡的馬，厚皮獸的牙齒，箭齒獸的化石等。 • 曾是巨獸出沒的草原，只剩侏儒般的小型動物， 造成如此大變化的原因何在？ 達爾文心中產生大疑問！！

23. Darwin’s Voyage 智利大地震對達爾文是一大震撼 • 為了探查智利海岸， l835年2月8日到達智利的巴第瓦。2月20日地震，約持績2分鐘。 • 3月4日船停靠巴第瓦和法耳巴拉索之間的康塞普森。此地很接近2月20日大地震的震央，幾乎所有房屋都倒塌，海岸地區尚留有地面隆起數公尺的痕跡。

24. Darwin’s Voyage 達爾文在安地斯山脈中確定Lyell主張的正確性 • Lyell (l797-l875)於l830-1833出版「地質學原理」，航海中常閱讀。 • 該書以蘇格蘭地質學家哈頓(l726-l797）的「均變說」為根據---地球表面常發生由空氣和水造成的風化和侵蝕；地震及火山爆發等現象，有時能將海底變成高山，此學說所需耍的只是十分悠久的地球年齡。 • 安地斯山脈數千公尺高的地層中，發現中生代（距今2億5000萬到6500萬年前）淺海中的貝類化石。表示海底徐徐隆起成為山脈，而且含有貝類化石的地層厚達數千公尺，顯示最初形成時是位於數千公尺深的海底，也就是說地殼在很長的一段時間內時而沈陷，時而隆起數千公尺。

25. A page from Darwin’s notebook

26. Darwin’s Voyage 「烏龜之島」加拉巴哥群島上發現很多新品種 • 1835.9抵加拉巴哥群島。群島多無珊瑚礁，也沒有椰子樹，且降雨量少，此群島中南、北方島嶼生態有些不同。 • 「加拉巴哥」是西班牙語「大龜」的意思，達爾文遇見重100公斤以上的巨龜，長1公尺以上的鬣蜥科動物，且分為棲息於海岸地區的永棲型和在內陸活動的陸棲型。 • 此群島遠離大陸，許多生物與其他地方大不相同，可見類似鵜鶘的軍艦鳥、雀科鳥類和可長期不攝餌的爬蟲類。不僅是鳥類和爬蟲類，其他魚貝類、昆蟲和花木也都不一樣。達爾文所採集的l5種魚類，還有l6種陸棲貝類中的l5種，都是新種。

27. Darwin’s Voyage 加拉巴哥群島上的生物，各自適應島上的自然環境 • 加拉巴哥群島有13種雀科鳥類，基本上都很相似，但喙的長短、彎曲角度等特徵，各島鳥類都有些微變化。 • 由「種」產生「亞種」，由一「種」產生其他「種」的演化是否是自然淘汰的結果，此問題盤旋於達爾文腦中。 • 由自然淘汰而產生新種必須經過很長的歲月，達爾文在安地斯山脈的觀察，可知地球存在的時間足夠產生這些演化。

28. Darwin’s Voyage 加拉巴哥群島的生物--- 「明顯的差異與微妙類似」之典型 • 群島上的生物與一千公里外的南美太平洋岸的生物有徵妙相似處。鷽鳥共有十三種，基本上形態都很相似，但喙的長度及彎曲度即各不相同。 • 差異可能和各島上的鳥類食物，如植物種子、毛蟲、昆蟲等不同有關。如果真是這樣，那麼導致各物種間差異的原因就很明顯了？ • 達爾文從觀察加拉巴哥群島的生物所得的靈感，為日後論生物進化的不朽名著「物種原始」奠下了基礎。

29. "In these Islands a great loggerhead duck or goose…... Their wings are too small and weak to allow flight, but by their aid, partly swimming and partly flapping the water, they move very quickly." If we think of a wing as for flying it is difficult to understand how it could have evolved, because a rudimentary wing might hinder more than helping. If we think of flying as something that a bird might discover if it happens already to have a more-or-less wing, evolved for other purposes, the scenario is much more plausible. http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/voyage/falkland.htm

30. 影響達爾文進化論思想的人物 • Buffon (1707-1778) The French geologist suggested that the Earth might be as much as 168,000 years old! • Charles Lyell (1797-1875) • Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829)

31. Charles Lyell (1797-1875) • 「地質學原理」是Lyell承繼十八世紀蘇格蘭地質學家哈頓（J．Hutton）的理論寫成的。 • 哈頓認為海底變成高山是因地震或火山爆發而來。這種自然法則的變動，自古至今都一樣，此學說稱為「均變說」(uniformitarianism），印證此學說的證據是地球經長期歲月變動所留下的痕跡。

32. Charles Lyell (1797-1875) Earth today result from the cumulative effects of slow but continuous processes over long expanses of time. In book Principles of Geology Lyell affirmed the Earth must be extremely old and that slow gradual changes over expansive amounts of time can yield substantial change. http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html

33. Charles Lyell (1797-1875) • 達爾文讀「地質學原理」後想「如果地球的年齡真的這麼老，那麼由微生物演變成溫血動物並非不可能。」 • 至此，地球的年齡成為進化論成立的先決條件。 目前科技推斷，地球年齡是四十五億年!!

34. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) 法國人

35. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) Philosophie zoologique (1809) • 「動物哲學」書中：「羚羊為了吃高大樹木的葉子，長期以來，一直極力地把頸子伸長而變成長頸鹿。」 • 這種想法雖已不為今日人們所接受，它卻是點燃達爾文進化論的導火線。 http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.htm

36. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) • Lamarck viewed evolution as a process of increasing complexity and "perfection," not driven by chance; Lamarck did not believe in extinction: for him, species that disappeared did so because they evolved into different species. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html

37. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) Lamarck’s mechanism for the evolution of life • Use and disuse--- those parts of the body that are used most to cope with the environment become larger and stronger over time, while those that are not used deteriorate. • The inheritance of acquired characteristics represents Lamarck's concept of heredity. http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html

38. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) • the mechanism of Lamarckian evolution is quite different from that proposed by Darwin, the predicted result is the same: adaptive change in lineages, ultimately driven by environmental change, over long periods of time. • It is interesting to note that Lamarck cited in support of his theory of evolution many of the same lines of evidence that Darwin was to use in the Origin of Species. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html

39. 進化論發表之歷史敘事

40. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) • 1837 --- "Notebook on Transmutation of Species" • 1838 ---reading of Thomas Malthus' (1766-1834) Essay on the Principle of Population crystallized his ideas into a coherent hypothesis. The importance of the observations he made aboard the Beagle began to make an impact.

41. 馬爾薩斯的人口論 • 馬爾薩斯牧師的「人口論」指出「人口的增加率通常會超過糧食供給的增加率。」 • 達爾文推想：「人類以外的生物應該也是如此。如果是這樣，那麼同時生下的小動物就註定有些會餓死，但是那一隻該餓死？大概是不能適應所居環境的要餓死吧！」 • 達爾文回想在加拉巴哥群島所看到的鷽鳥。本來都是同種，相互間可交配繁殖，為了適應各島的特殊環境而發生變異，且只有這些能隨著各島環境而產生變異的鳥才能活下來。像這樣由一種而變為多種的現象，達爾文稱之為「自然淘汰」

42. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) • 1842--- Darwin wrote a "Sketch" on natural selection which he revised and had copied in 1844 (and retitled "Essay"). • January of 1847 he handed Hooker a fair copy of the 231 page manuscript to read and comment upon. http://www.inform.umd.edu/PBIO/darwin/darwin01.html

43. Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) • 1848-1852 -- in the tropical jungles of Brazil (Amazon and Rio Negro rivers) 海上災難，船失火，所收集之標本多付之一炬 • 1853 --Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro • 1854 to 1862---'Malay Archipelago' or East Indies (now Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens and study nature. Over the next eight years, he made the great voyage which led to his formulation of the theory of Natural Selection. http://www.iol.ie/~spice/alfred.htm

44. "Truth is born into this world only with pangs and tribulations, and every fresh truth is received unwillingly. ….." Alfred Russel Wallace 1823-1913 1902 80歲

45. Darwin & Wallace • In February of 1858, Wallace was bed-ridden and suffering from an attack of malaria. Ill and fevered, he drafted his ideas on "the survival of the fittest" during a single evening. He worked over the draft the next two evenings with the idea of sending it to Darwin. • On 9 March 1858 he mailed his letter by mail-boat from the island of Ternate with the request that if Darwin thought the ideas worthy that he send the letter on to Lyell. http://www.inform.umd.edu/PBIO/darwin/darwin01.html

46. Darwin & Wallace • Upon seeing Wallace's paper, Darwin realized he was about to be scooped, and decided to end the 20-year delay in publishing his own theory. • Wallace's paper and Darwin's various notes and correspondence on the subject were read at the same Linnean Society meeting, in London on July 1, 1858. The next year, Darwin published On the Origin of Species. http://www.strangescience.net/wallace.htm

47. Darwin & Wallace If ever a scientist didn't get his fair share of the glory, it was Alfred Russel Wallace. • Wallace commented that his greatest achievement had been to prompt Darwin to publish his own theory. • He wrote more than 20 books, and roughly 700 articles and published letters. http://www.strangescience.net/wallace.htm

48. Darwin's theory of evolution • 1859 --- On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection Darwin admitted that all the leading paleontologists were against his theory because it was not supported by the fossil evidence. http://members.iinet.net.au/~sejones/pe04hist.html#hstryrtsncntgrksmpdcls

49. 達爾文演化論之主張 • 模式主張 所有地球生物皆系譜性的相關， 生命形成一棵樹，時間若回溯夠久， 所有同時期之物種皆有共同的祖先。 • 歷程主張 生命形式中所見之多樣性的基本成因即為天擇 以上皆非達爾文之原創見！！ 歐陽敏譯（2000）生物演化的哲學思維.台北：韋伯。

50. Darwin's theory of evolution • The strength of Darwin's theory ---- its explanation for why species change and why they are adapted to their surroundings. • Mechanism of evolution --- natural selection. • Survival in the struggle for existence is not random, but depends in part on the heredity constitution of individuals. http://www2.evansville.edu/evolutionweb/history.html