The Rise of the Taoist “Church”

1. The Rise of the Taoist “Church” Jeff Richey, Ph.D. REL 213 Taoism and the Arts of China Berea College Short Term 2004

2. WHAT IS THE TAOIST “CHURCH”? • Refers to actual communities of texts and practices that first arise during the late Han 漢 dynasty (25-220 CE) • “Church Taoism” appropriates and reinterprets older “Taoist” texts and traditions (e.g., Laozi 老子, meditation techniques, medical lore, occultism), as well as Buddhist elements • Daojiao道教 (“Teachings of the Dao” – first used to describe Confucianism – now corresponds to this movement

3. “TAOIST” MOVEMENTS, c. 200 BCE-400 CE • Non-institutional movements: • Huang-Lao黃老 (“Yellow [Emperor]-Lao[zi]”) • Xuanxue玄學 (“Mysterious Learning”) • Institutional (“Church”) movements: • Tianshi天師 (“Celestial Masters”) or Zhengyi正一 (“Orthodox Unity”) • Shangqing上清 (“Highest Clarity”) • Lingbao靈寶 (“Spiritual Treasure”)

4. THE CELESTIAL MASTERS • Earliest known institutional form of Taoism • Based on revelations of deified Laozi to Zhang Daoling 張道陵 (c. 142 CE) • Generated many new Taoist scriptural texts • Conducted recitations of Laozi and communal rituals for salvation of the elect • Expected imminent end of world with reward for elect • Won favor with post-Han warlords and spread throughout period of disunity (220-589 CE)

5. SHANGQING TRADITIONS • Based on revelations received by Yang Xi 楊羲 (330-386 CE?) from “Highest Clarity” level of Taoist heaven • Revised Celestial Masters ritual to be more congenial to elite audience • Incorporated wide range of popular and elite traditions, including alchemy and pharmacy

6. LINGBAO TRADITIONS • Based on revelations received c. 400 CE • Regarded Buddhism as foreign form of Taoism and borrowed heavily from Buddhist texts • Used Celestial Masters-like communal rituals to achieve salvation of all beings

7. ALCHEMY AND IMMORTALITY • Both longevity and immortality correspond to qualities of the Tao, with which the Taoist seeks unity • Alchemy (experimentation with the transformation of physical substances, often toxic) becomes one popular method for increasing longevity and attaining immortality • Other methods include: • Dietary regimens • Meditation • Scriptural recitation • Sexual techniques

8. Rooted in late Han (25-220 CE) Associated with actual communities of practice Understanding of Tao as transcendent deity that incarnates itself (singly or multiply) throughout history in order to aid humanity View of popular deities and Buddhist figures as emanations or incarnations of Tao Assumed existence of celestial hierarchy or bureaucratic pantheon manipulable by expert ritualists Concerned with physical vitality and longevity Offering techniques for cultivation of qi 氣 Linked to lineages based on transmission of scriptural texts Universalist in appeal IDENTIFYING POST-CLASSICAL“TAOISM”

9. TAOISM, CONFUCIANISM, AND BUDDHISM • As Taoism emerges as distinct tradition, it becomes competitive with Confucian and Buddhist traditions • While Taoist movements always distinguish themselves from others (Buddhist, popular, etc.), a high degree of interpenetration between traditions is a constant reality • No evidence that average practitioners show much concern about exclusive religious participation