Chapter 10: Judaism and Christianity

1. Chapter 10: Judaism and Christianity • Introduction • Hebrews introduce monotheism into a world of polytheism in the form of a god above nature and free from compulsion and fate • Hebrews took name “Judaism” in honor of Judah, a prophet, and their homeland, Judaea • Christianity emerged from Judaism

2. Judaism • The Sacred Scriptures • Early scriptures known collectively as TaNaKh • Torah = Five Books of Moses • Nevi’im = Books of the Prophets • Ketuvim = historical, poetic, and philosophic writings • Christians accept all of the TaNaKh as the “Old Testament” • Jews and Christians long regarded these books as the literal “word of God”

3. Judaism • The Sacred Scriptures [cont.] • “Biblical Criticism” in last 200 years has placed these works into historical context • Close reading suggests stylistic differences tied to different authors • Josiah’s centralization of Hebrew belief resulted in the writing of Deuteronomy • Other stories were woven together at a later date to create the rest of the Torah

4. Judaism • The Sacred Scriptures [cont.] • Oldest existing copy of complete Torah dates to 9th-11th centuries C.E. • Greek language Torah dates to 2nd-3rd century B.C.E. • Torah is one of best examples of “myth-history” because it captures ideals, concepts, and beliefs of Jewish people even if not literally true

5. Judaism • Essential Beliefs of Judaism in Early Scripture • A single, caring God • A God of history • A community rooted in divinely chosen family • A specific “promised” geographical homeland • A legal system • A sacred calendar

6. Judaism • The Later Books of Jewish Scripture • Nevi’im and Ketuvim carry Jewish story from 1200 B.C.E. to 500 C.E. • Books begin with Joshua, the return of the Jews from Egypt to Israel • History suggests that return was spread out over time and that era involved extensive borrowing from other cultures

7. Judaism • The Later Books of Jewish Scripture [cont.] • Rule by Judges and Kings • Jews adopted loose confederacy advised by judges upon return to Canaan (Israel) • Created kings (1020 B.C.E.) to deal with internal strife • Kingdom split in two in reaction to extravagant reign of Solomon (950 B.C.E.)

8. Judaism • The Later Books of Jewish Scripture [cont.] • Teachings of the Prophets: Morality and Hope • Prophets demanded return of morality and compassion in face of corrupt leadership • Placed memory of past injustice and slavery against current events and demanded return to religious roots • Presented image of an inspiring future

9. Judaism • The Evolution of the Image of God • God’s early concerns about humanity resulted in a flood and in the division of people by language • Responded to evil with punishment • YHWH accessible via prayer and dialogue • Challenged self-willed polytheistic gods but provided no answer for the existence of evil in the world

10. Judaism • Patriarchy and Gender Relations • Torah granted women fewer rights than men • Regulation of sexuality extensive in scripture • Women had few heroic roles

11. Judaism • Defeat, Exile, and Redefinition • Jews exiled of northern kingdom by Assyrians (721 B.C.E.); returned sixty years later • Outsiders including Alexander controlled Israel • Roman Empire destroyed temple in Jerusalem in 70 C.E. and dispersed people, 135 C.E. • This Diaspora reshaped Jewish beliefs • No significant numbers of Jews in Judaea until 20th century

12. Judaism • Minority/Majority Relations in the Diaspora • Jews remained distinct people in new settlements • Flourished in many instances but faced discrimination in others • Story of Esther shows Esther in preservation of Jewish community but also shows pressures on minorities in empires

13. Christianity • Christianity Emerges from Judaism • Developed at height of Roman power • Jews were divided into four groups: Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, and Essenes • Jesus’ teachings challenged Pharisees who accepted Roman rule • Called for rapid religious reform and predicted early day of judgement for the world • Promised a life in Heaven

14. Christianity • Christianity Emerges from Judaism [cont.] • Jesus’ preaching angered Jewish and Roman leaders • Followers saw him as messiah and miracle worker • Roman crucifixion did not stop growth of followers • Message of compassion, salvation, and eternal life attracted many Romans

15. Christianity • Jesus’ Life, Teaching, and Disciples • Adapting Rituals to New Purposes • Jesus’ prayer and preaching was writing Jewish tradition • Baptism was modification of unimportant Jewish ritual • “Last supper” an extension of Passover meal

16. Christianity • Jesus’ Life, Teachings, and Disciples [cont.] • Overturning the Old Order • Assertion that “the end of the world” was at hand was recognition that world would soon change • Argued that wealth was a hindrance to salvation • Raised commandment to “love your neighbor” above a broad range of Jewish commands • Predicted violent end of world

17. Christianity • Jesus’ Life, Teachings, and Disciples [cont.] • Jesus and the Jewish Establishment • Was condescending and confrontational toward Jewish religious leaders • Scoffed at dietary and Sabbath restrictions • Restricted divorce • Teachings reflect desire to return to earlier beliefs in faith and spirituality, and that the future lay in Heaven, not earth

18. Christianity • Jesus’ Life, Teachings, and Disciples [cont.] • Miracles and Resurrection • Miracles rather than teachings brought followers • Crucifixion and resurrection completed the miracles of Jesus • Apostles, especially Paul of Tarsus (d. 67 C.E.), transformed Christian sect into broad religion with preaching, organizational network, and instructional letters

19. Christianity • The Growth of the Early Church • Peter, designated as leader of early organization, stressed Christian ethics over Jewish practices such as circumcision • Broadened appeal to Gentiles • Made little mention of the apocalyptic side of Christianity

20. Christianity • The Growth of the Early Church [cont.] • Paul Organizes the Early Church • Saul converted from a critic to an apostle of Christianity • Was Jewish by ethnicity, Roman by citizenship, and Greek by culture • Linked Christian communities of eastern Mediterranean with letters (Epistles) • Formulated concept of original sin and redemption from it

21. Christianity • The Growth of the Early Church [cont.] • The Christian Calendar • Created sacred calendar with special days • Christmas = Jesus’ Birth • Easter = Jesus’ Resurrection • Pentecost = Jesus’ Ascension [had been date of Jewish commemoration of the receipt of the Ten Commandments] • Numbered years from the presumed date of Jesus’ birth • Sabbath was changed from Saturday to Sunday, from the seventh to the first day of the week

22. Christianity • The Growth of the Early Church [cont.] • Gender Relations • Women were central to earliest church but became less so over time despite “spiritual equality” • Paul recommended celibacy for all but monogamous marriage for those who could not remain celibate • Made wife subordinate to husband at home • Commanded women to keep silent in church • Accepted slavery

23. Christianity • From Persecution to Triumph • Adopted imperial capital (Rome) as center of the new religion • Christianity started as one of a number of “mystery religions” in Rome • Refusal to worship emperor seen as threat • Persecution extensive within empire • Decided on content of New Testament by 200 C.E.

24. Christianity • From Persecution to Triumph [cont.] • The Conversion of Constantine • Constantine vision in 313 C.E. regarded as Christian sanction of his military career • Immediately made Christianity legal • Sponsored council at Nicaea that produced Nicene Creed • Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire in 392 C.E.

25. Christianity • From Persecution to Triumph [cont.] • How Had Christianity Succeeded? • Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) scorned Christianity but revealed strengths and secrets of the spread in his critique • Zeal • Promise of future life • Miracles • Austere morals • Created state within a state • Created personal community within universal religion

26. Christianity • Doctrine: Definition and Dispute • Augustine (354-430 C.E.) emphasized the spiritual rather than the political possibilities • Connected Christian theology to Greek philosophy of Plato • Emphasized meditation • Believed sexuality to be perilous • Believers should subordinate their will to the teachings of the church

27. Christianity • Doctrine: Definition and Dispute [cont.] • Battle over Dogma • Divisive dispute over the divinity of Jesus • Arius (250-336 C.E.) thought humanity of Jesus made God more sacred than Jesus • Arian dispute led to open warfare and military defeat of the Arians • Growth of Christianity sometimes led missionaries to try to convert Jews by coercion

28. Christianity in Wake of Empire • The Conversion of the Barbarians • Christian bishops came from ranks of senatorial governing class--continuity with the empire • Extensive conversions culminated in conversion of Clovis in 496 C.E., the first barbarian to accept the religion • Action got Clovis support and connections from Roman leadership

29. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Decentralized Power and Monastic Life • Early church dominated by missionaries who were unmarried men and women • Pope Gregory I (590-604 C.E.) encouraged monastic movement; useful in conversion and discipline • Church power fragmented in West until 1000 C.E. • Monasteries developed missions, schools, and other institutions of church • Decisive papal leadership would come later

30. Christianity in Wake of Empire • The Church Divides into East and West • Church superceded empire in West but Byzantium never ceded power to the church • Eastern church urban and organized; Western church rural and disconnected into local units • Rome seen as an outlier of Orthodox church after Council of Chalcedon

31. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Church Divides into East and West [cont.] • Split between Rome and Constantinople • Central issue was authority of Roman pope from the perspective of Rome and Constantinople • Leo IX (elected pope in 1048 C.E.) promoted papal power in the West--and over Constantinople • Result was Great Schism of 1054 C.E. onward • Most direct confrontation was in 1204 C.E., when western Crusaders attacked Constantinople rather than pursue state purpose of attacking Muslims

32. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Church Divides into East and West [cont.] • New Areas Adopt Orthodox Christianity • Orthodox monks became active later than monks in the West • Caught between Roman West and Islamic East, these missionaries moved north to Russia, which began to call itself the “Third Rome” after the fall of Constantinople • East and West competed for converts in areas adjacent to the two religions

33. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Christianity in Western Europe • Europe halted Muslim growth at Tours, 732 C.E. • Muslim conquests cut Christianity off from the lands of its birth • Christianity became primarily a religion of Europeans, often recently-converted “barbarian” warrior nobles

34. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Christianity in Western Europe [cont.] • The Pope Allies with the Franks • Pope felt surrounded by Muslims and Byzantines as well as by powerful Goths to the north • Turned to powerful Franks such as Charles Martel, who defeated Muslim invasion of France at Tours in 732 C.E. • Pope gave official approval of Martel’s son, Pepin III, and the Carolingians as royal ruling house of the Franks

35. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Christianity in Western Europe [cont.] • Charlemagne Revives Idea of Empire • Although crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 C.E., Charlemagne’s goal was to expand his own empire • Victories made his empire coterminous with Christianity except for Great Britain • Promoted education as part of Carolingian “renaissance” • Charlemagne’s empire paralleled that of the East

36. Christianity in Wake of Empire • Christianity in Western Europe [cont.] • The Attempt at Empire Fails • Carolingians maintain power until end of 9th century • Invaders (Magyars, Norsemen, Arabs) are too powerful to keep out; local administrators act on their own • Church institutions and leaders give Europe its fundamental character and order (600-1100 C.E.)

37. Early Christianity: What Difference Does It Make? • First millennium of Christianity ended in “high” Middle Ages • By 1000 C.E., church was most important cultural and organizational force in Western Europe • Church took on developmental and administrative roles in addition to its spiritual mission