The Classical Argument

The Classical Argument Rhetorical Fallacies

Rhetorical Fallacies • Fallacies are misleading arguments . . . . To call something a fallacy is usually another way of saying it violates one of the rules for good arguments. • Fallacies distract readers with various appeals instead of using sound reasoning. • Rhetorical Fallacies do not allow for open two-way exchange of ideas.

Rhetorical Fallacies • EMOTIONAL FALLACIES –unfair appeal to audience’s emotions (violations of pathos) • ETHICAL FALLACIES – unreasonably advance the writer’s own authority or character (violations of ethos) • LOGICAL FALLACIES – depend upon faulty logic (violations of logos)

Emotional Fallacies • Sentimental Appeals • Red Herrings • Scare Tactics • Bandwagon Appeals • Slippery Slope arguments • Either/Or Choices • False Need Arguments

Sentimental Appeals Use emotion to distract the audience from the facts. Example: The thousand baby seals killed in the Exxon Valdez oil spill have shown us that oil is not a reliable source of energy.

Sentimental Appeals Dear Dr. King, We need divine help from you. It is a RUSH job. Sincerely, The United States of America

Red Herrings Use misleading or unrelated evidence to support a conclusion. Also known as Smoke Screen . Topic A is under discussion. Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A). Topic A is abandoned.

Red Herrings Ex. "We admit that this measure is popular. But we also urge you to note that there are so many bond issues on this ballot that the whole thing is getting ridiculous."

Red Herrings "Argument" for a tax cut: "You know, I've begun to think that there is some merit in the Republican's tax cut plan. I suggest that you come up with something like it, because If we Democrats are going to survive as a party, we have got to show that we are as tough-minded as the Republicans, since that is what the public wants."

Red Herrings "Argument" for making grad school requirements stricter: "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."

Red Herrings

Scare Tactics Try to frighten people into agreeing with the arguer by threatening them or predicting unrealistically dire consequences. • Y is presented (a claim that is intended to produce fear). • Therefore claim X is true (a claim that is generally, but need not be, related to Y in some manner).

Scare Tactics Example: If you don’t support the party’s tax plan, you and your family will be reduced to poverty.

Scare Tactics Ex. "You know, Professor Smith, I really need to get an A in this class. I'd like to stop by during your office hours later to discuss my grade. I'll be in your building anyways, visiting my father. He's your dean, by the way. I'll see you later."

Scare Tactics Ex. “You must believe that God exists. After all, if you do not accept the existence of God, then you will face the horrors of hell."

Scare Tactics Ex. "You shouldn't say such things against multiculturalism! If the chair heard what you were saying, you would never receive tenure. So, you had just better learn to accept that it is simply wrong to speak out against it."

Scare Tactics

Bandwagon Appeals Encourage an audience to agree with the writer because everyone else is doing so. Person P is pressured by his/her peers or threatened with rejection. Therefore person P's claim X is false.

Bandwagon Appeals Example: Paris Hilton carries a small dog in her purse, so you should buy a hairless Chihuahua and put it in your Louis Vuitton.

Bandwagon Appeals Ex. Bill says that he likes the idea that people should work for their welfare when they can. His friends laugh at him, accuse him of fascist leanings, and threaten to ostracize him from their group. He decides to recant and abandon his position to avoid rejection.

Bandwagon Appeals

Slippery Slope This argument suggests that one thing will lead to another, oftentimes with disastrous results. Event X has occurred (or will or might occur). Therefore event Y will inevitably happen.

Slippery Slope Example: If you get a B in high school, you won’t get into the college of your choice, and therefore will never have a meaningful career.

Slippery Slope Example: You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you

Slippery Slope Example: We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books.

Slippery Slope

Either/Or ChoicesFalse Dilemma Reduce complicated issues to only two possible courses of action. Either claim X is true or claim Y is true (when X and Y could both be false). Claim Y is false. Therefore claim X is true.

Either/Or ChoicesFalse Dilemma Example: The patent office can either approve my generator design immediately or say goodbye forever to affordable energy.

Either/Or ChoicesFalse Dilemma Example: Senator Jill: "We'll have to cut education funding this year." Senator Bill: "Why?" Senator Jill: "Well, either we cut the social programs or we live with a huge deficit and we can't live with the deficit."

Either/Or ChoicesFalse Dilemma Example: "Look, you are going to have to make up your mind. Either you decide that you can afford this stereo, or you decide you are going to do without music for a while."

Either/Or ChoicesFalse Dilemma

False Need These arguments create an unnecessary desire for things. Example: You need an expensive car or people won’t think you are cool.

Ethical Fallacies • False Authority • Using Authority Instead of Evidence • Guilt by Association • Dogmatism • Moral Equivalence • Ad Hominum • Poisoning the Well • Strawperson

Ethical Fallacies False Authority Asks audiences to agree with the assertion of a writer based simply on his or her character or the authority of another person or institution who may not be fully qualified to offer that assertion. Example: My high school teacher said it, so it must be true.

The Classical Argument