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Social Research Methods

Alan Bryman. Social Research Methods. Chapter 12: Structured observation. Slides authored by Tom Owens. A method of systematically observing people’s behaviour By grouping behaviour into categories Direct observation, not reports or inference, make it an alternative to survey methods

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Social Research Methods

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  1. Alan Bryman Social Research Methods Chapter 12: Structured observation Slides authored by Tom Owens

  2. A method of systematically observing people’s behaviour By grouping behaviour into categories Direct observation, not reports or inference, make it an alternative to survey methods Aggregates and compares behaviour of everyone in the sample Uses a cross-sectional research design What is structured observation? Pages 270-272

  3. Respondents interpret different meanings from questions Omission of key terms when reading questions Reliance on people’s memories of their behaviour Social desirability effect Threatening questions - invalid answers Interviewer bias Gap between stated and actual behaviour Problems with survey research Tips and skills Page 271

  4. Structured/systematic observation Participant observation (qualitative) Non-participant observation Unstructured observation (inductive) Simple/contrived observation - a form of participant observation where the situation is left as is or is changed (Webb et al.1966) Types of observation research Key concept 12.2 Page 273

  5. Must have a clear focus and be easy to use Categories must be inclusive (cover all options) and mutually exclusive It must be easy to operate Specifies categories of behaviour to be observed and how to allocate behaviour to a category Clear guidelines needed so that observers can distinguish between behaviour categories A pilot study is useful to iron out any problems The observation schedule Pages 275-276

  6. Flanders (1970) Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) Figure 12.1 Page 274

  7. Record incidents, events and interventions Observe for short periods of time, repeatedly Observe for long periods of time, continuously e.g. Jenkins et al (1975): ‘the observation hour’ Time sampling Record whatever is happening every x minutes e.g. ORACLE study (Galton et al, 1980) Strategies for observing behaviour Pages 276-277

  8. Sampling people - Random sample of individuals to observe Sampling time periods - Observe same individual(s) at different, randomly selected times Non-probability samples - Cannot use a probability sample if there is no sampling frame, thus reduced external validity Limited external validity, in any case Sampling in structured observation Pages 277-278

  9. Ad libitum sampling Record whatever is happening at the time Focal sampling (most common form) Observe a specific individual for a set period of time Scan sampling Record behaviour of everyone in the group at regular time intervals Behaviour sampling Observe whole group to see who was involved in a particular behaviour Forms of sampling Martin and Bateson, 1986 Pages 279

  10. Reliability Inter-observer consistency (measured by Cohen’s kappa) Intra-observer consistency (lapses of attention) Measurement validity Does schedule measure underlying concept? Implementation of schedule Presence of observer - reactive effect Issues of reliability and validity Pages 279-281

  11. Webb et al. (1966) wrote about the ‘reactive measurement effect’, in which the research subject knows s/he is participating in research, thus invalidating the data: • The guinea pig effect (awareness of being tested) • Role selection (participants adopt a particular kind of role) • Measurement as a change agent (the very fact of a researcher being present) • Response sets (mostly relates to survey research when the respondent replies to a set of questions in a consistent but clearly inappropriate manner). Reactive effects are likely to occur in any research in which participants know they are the focus of investigation. What is the reactive effect? Key concept 12.4 Pages 281, 282

  12. Salancik (1979) used ‘field stimulation’ to describe a form of observation in which the researcher directly intervenes in a setting and observes the results ( a form of contrived, unobtrusive observation). Quantification of the outcomes is the desired goal. Field stimulations Pages 282

  13. A field stimulation example: Daniel’s (1968) study of racial discrimination • Sixty ads for accommodation to let were selected from a number of regions. • Each landlord was approached by each of the following: a black West Indian; a white Hungarian; and a white Englishman. • The applicants had identical characteristics, just different ethnicity. Pages 283

  14. …..and the quantification of the outcomes Table 12.1 Page 283

  15. Imposes an irrelevant framework on the social setting Neglects the meanings and intentions behind behaviour (motives are inferred but not investigated) Neglects the social context of behaviour Generates fragmented data - difficult to see the wider picture Criticisms of structured observation Pages 283, 284

  16. It is more accurate than interviews and questionnaires see what people really do, not what they say they do It is a useful accompaniment to other methods study behaviour, attitudes and social context On the other hand... Pages 284

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