Understanding Curriculum, Learning and Assessment

1. Understanding Curriculum, Learning and Assessment Challenging orthodoxies of Learning Theory Year Round 2010-2011

2. Workshop 6 Overview • 5.00-6.30(-ish) • Learning Theories Revisited • 6.30(- ish)-8.00 • Assignment Planning

3. Session objectives • To revise ‘grand theories’ of learning • To consider critiques of these theories • To identify the cultural influences on learning • To identify and question the influence of constructivist learning theory on curriculum design and teaching • To support a critique of learning styles • To support development of assignment ideas

4. Guide questions for the module 1. What are the current orthodoxies? 2. Where did these ideas come from? 3. Whose interests do they represent? 4. What alternatives might there be?

5. Learning Theory: what do you know? In pairs, look at the key concepts cards and sort them into three categories. Take your time and check what you each know. • We know what this means and could explain it to someone else • We’ve heard of this but are not sure exactly what it means • We’ve very little idea what this means

6. Theories of Learning • Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences • Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning • Piaget’s theory of genetic epistemology (i.e. growth of knowledge) • Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of mind • Wood’s theory of contingent teaching

7. Howard Gardner (b.1943)‘Theory of Multiple Intelligences’

8. Howard Gardner • Frames of Mind, The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Basic Books, 1983 • Multiple Intelligences - The Theory in Practice Basic Books, 1993 • Intelligence Reframed Basic Books, 1999

9. Gardner’s definition of intelligence: "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings". .

10. Criticisms of MI Theory • What is Gardner’s evidence? • How does he know that these eight or nine are THE intelligences? • How does he know that each is separate and distinct?

11. Theories of Learning • Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences • Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning • Piaget’s theory of genetic epistemology (i.e. growth of knowledge) • Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of mind • Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory • Wood’s theory of contingent teaching

12. Behaviourism: Skinner Knowledge is transferred from teacher to student. Learning occurs in response to positive reinforcement.

13. Skinner • Stimulus-response • Classical conditioning (Pavlov) • Operant conditioning • Law of positive reinforcement

14. Skinner Box

15. Behaviourism – Skinner • A theory of animal and human learning that aims to focus only upon objectively observable behaviours, never on mental activities. • Behaviourists define learning as the acquisition of new behaviour. • Each step in the learning process should be short and grow out of previously learned behaviour. • In the early stages, learning should be regularly rewarded and carefully controlled by a process of either continuous or intermittent reinforcement. • A reward should follow quickly after the appearance of the correct response; our motivation is enhanced when we are informed of our rate of progress. • The learner needs to have some idea of the most likely pathway to success – a sense of the overall structure of learning.

16. Skinner’s idea • “All we need to know in order to describe and explain behavior is this: actions followed by good outcomes are likely to recur , and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.” (Skinner, 1953)

17. !

18. …REJECTS BEHAVIOURISM children’s minds are not simply conditioned by their environment it is not simply a matter of stimulus and response …IS A CONSTRUCTIVIST children actively construct their view of reality Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

19. Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development

20. Key difference between Piaget and Vygotsky: • For Piaget, development moves from the individual to the social. • For Vygotsky, development moves from the social to the individual.

21. The general genetic law of cultural development • “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological), and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals” (Vygotsky 1978: 57)

22. Wood’s Contingent teaching - five levels of control • General verbal prompt • Specific verbal instruction • Indicates materials • Prepares for assembly • Demonstrates

23. What do we know about learning? Based on Pollard & Triggs, (1997) Reflective teaching in secondary education p.220.

24. Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory • A causal theory of mind • ‘triadic reciprocal causation’ (Bandura, 1988) • Behaviour; Cognitive/personal; Environmental factors are interacting determinants acting bi- directionally. (Bandura, 1988) Source: http://usaoll.org/iddtheorywb/sociallearningtheory/diagram.htm

25. Culture influences on learning Culture Knowledge Values Expectations Confidence Receptiveness Register Styles Dialects Based on Pollard & Triggs, (1997) Reflective teaching in secondary education p.223.

26. Cultural influences on learners Based on Pollard & Triggs, (1997) Reflective teaching in secondary education.

27. Individual Personality and Learning Approach • Personality traits • Cognitive Styles • Learning strategies Person-centred focus • The whole person • The learner perspective

28. What aren’t ‘learning theories’ ... ... but you might want to look at for this module • Learning styles • VAK (accelerated learning); Kolb • Theories of intelligence • Gardner (Multiple Intelligences) • Theories of motivation • Intrinsic/extrinsic • Thinking skills • Bloom’s taxonomy; Adey & Shayer

29. What aren’t ‘learning theories’ ... ... but you might want to look at for this module • Learning styles health warning! • VAK (accelerated learning); Kolb • Theories of intelligence health warning! • Gardner (Multiple Intelligences) • Theories of motivation • Intrinsic/extrinsic • Thinking skills • Bloom’s taxonomy; Adey & Shayer

30. Constructivism – is it contentious? • Constructivist theory dominated educational discourses. • Its research base is criticised as ‘sparse’. • constructivism as a learning theory versus a model for instruction?

31. Constructivism – is it contentious? • Two readings: • ‘Reconciling a Human Cognitive Architecture’ • Jonassen, 2009. • Constructivism as a Theory of Learning Versus Constructivism as a Prescription for Instruction. • Mayer, 2009.

32. ‘Reconciling a Human Cognitive Architecture’Jonassen, 2009. • ‘The how of learning cannot be comprehended through a single lens.’ p14 • Activity • Read the descriptions of learning on pp14-18 • In a small group, discuss your views of these ideas. • Are you persuaded by Jonassen’s assertion that ‘The how of learning cannot be comprehended through a single lens.’ p14

33. Constructivism as a Theory of Learning Versus Constructivism as a Prescription for Instruction – Mayer 2009 • ‘The constructivist teaching fallacy’ • Reading • Active versus passive learning • Active versus passive instruction

34. Four types of instructional methods based on cognitive and behavioural activity. (Based on Meyer, 2009) Pure discovery Guided discovery Principled presentations Unprincipled presentations

35. Indicative references for further study • INTRODUCTORY • Burton, D. (2009) Ways pupils learn, in S. Capel, M. Leask and T. Turner (eds) Learning to Teach in the Secondary School, 5th edition, London: Routledge. [Unit 5.1: pp. 251-266] • Dymoke, S. (2008) An overview of learning, in S. Dymoke and J. Harrison (eds) Reflective Teaching and Learning, London: Sage. [Ch 2: pp. 45-68] • Pollard, A. (2008) Reflective Teaching, 3rd edition, London: Continuum. [Ch 7: pp. 169-207, plus associated original readings in Pollard, A. (ed.) (2002) Readings for Reflective Teaching, London: Continuum.] • MORE ADVANCED • Jordan, A., Carlile, O. and Stack, A. (2009) Approaches to Learning: A Guide for Teachers, Maidenhead: McGraw Hill/Open University. • ADVANCED • Daniels, H. (2001) Vygotsky and Pedagogy, London: Routledge Falmer. • Wood, D. (1988) How Children Think and Learn, Oxford: Blackwell. • ORIGINAL RESEARCH

36. Assignment issues • What are the requirements? • How is it assessed? – see Intranet re module • Assessment guidelines and submission • Ethics • Tutorial support

37. Ethical research is good research? • “My own view is that the MAIN CRITERION for educational research is that it should be ethical… [E]very researcher [should] place it foremost in the planning, conduct and presentation of his / her research. Ethical considerations override all others” (Wellington, 2000: 54; original emphasis).

38. Your ideas for assignments • Work in a tetrad or triad to share your ideas: • Explainers should: • Outline ideas • Give a rationale in relation to the module themes • Suggest possible approaches to addressing the issue, and • Indicate likely lines of literature and evidence on which to base the assignment. • Peers should: • Listen and hear ideas non-judgementally! • Seek clarifications and explanations • Offer constructive suggestions

39. Standard ethical protocol • Fully informed consentof prospective participants & (for minors) ‘responsible others’. Researcher should provide information about: • the aims and nature of the research • identity and contact details of researchers • likely duration of research & their involvement • who will have access to data • how data will be stored • possible consequences of participation and of the research • whether participants would have right to see/amend transcripts, comment on provisional data analyses etc. • how results are likely to be disseminated • the extent to which confidentiality and anonymity will be protected

40. Standard ethical protocol (cont.) • Participants’ right to withdraw • Confidentiality – whilst researchers know who has provided data, they should not make this known to others • Anonymity • Non-traceability • Protection of participants’welfare – attempt to ensure that participants are not harmed or detrimentally affected by the research • Respect for participants’ right to privacy • Respect for knowledge – ‘pursuit of truth’ • Sensitivity to differencesrelating (for example) to age, culture, disability, race, sex, religion, sexual orientation.

41. School of Education ethical review procedures: what you need to do • Submit a draft proposal to your HEI tutor, who will send you feedback • Submit a revised proposal for ethical review (This may be approved or you may have to revise & resubmit) • Information on what to include in your research ethics proposal can be found at: http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/educationstudentintranet/researchethics/index.aspx • NB You should not undertake any data generation until your ethics proposal has been approved

42. What makes a good research question? • Activity • Discussion • Questions