Representation, Elections and Voting Chapter 12
Do you think elections are important? Why, why not? • What do elections mean to you? • Why do you think we need to elect someone to represent us? • Does democracy mean elections?
Representation • Should representation be restricted to those who have the competence, education and time to think about politics and act on behalf of others? • Does representative government mean that they know better than the people? • Does it mean that representatives should do whatever their voters demand or should they lead public opinion? • Political equality? • The right to vote and the right to stand for election. • One person, one vote. • Universal suffrage (Geneloyhakki)
Theories of Representation • Trustee model: • Trustee: A person who is formally responsible fro another person’s property or affairs. (Mütevelli or vasi) • Trustee is believed to have mature judgment and act with an enlightened conscience. • According to the trustee model, politicians are representatives insofar as they are educated, because educated people are believed to be altruistic, socially responsible and make correct moral judgments. • Criticism is that being educated does not necessarily mean making the best decisions for the people.
Delegate Model • Delegate: • A person who is chosen to act for another on the basis of clear guidance. (Delege) • What a delegate would say and how he/she would act is clearly defined. • Politicians as delegates do only act in accordance with their voters’ demands. Their ideas only reflect the views of their voters. • Criticism is the limited or no leadership by politicians.
Mandate Model • Mandate: Instruction or command from a higher body that demands compliance. (Mandaveyavekalet) • The idea is that the political party gains a popular mandate that authorizes it to carry out its party programme. • Voters select political parties and party programmes rather than representatives. • Politicians serve the public as long as they remain loyal to its party programme/policies. • Criticism is that rigid and ideology-driven party programmes might limit government policies.
Resemblance Model • This model is based on the idea that the representative government should resemble the larger society. (A microcosm of society) • This model suggests that only people who come from a particular group can represent the interests of that particular group. (Only a worker can represent the working class, only a woman can represent women or only a farmer can represent farmers) • Criticism of this model is that its narrow definition of representation results in social divisions. • Broader public interests vs. group interests.
Theories of Representation • The Principal-Agent problem: • Principal: a person, legal or natural, who authorizes an agent to act on behalf of him to create one or more legal relationships with a third party. • Agent:a person who is authorized to act on behalf of another person. • Who are the principal and who are the agents in politics? • Principal: Voters, the people • Agent: Representatives, government officials • Trustee model: Representatives are principals too. • Delegate model: Representatives are only agents. Principals are voters. • Mandate model: Voters are principals, yet representatives are agents and principals. Representatives have the mandate to govern for a limited period of time. • Resemblance model: Principals are different groups in society and an agent is the representative chosen within these different groups. (Here, the issue is not the principal-agent problem rather, to what extent an agent resembles the principal.)
Elections • Modern democracies are usually equated with competitive, free and fair elections. • Competitive elections= several political parties competing in the elections • Free and fair elections= secret ballot and preventing any influence/intervention on voters’ decisions. • Elections are a political mechanism through which ordinary people can participate in politics. • Elections are also a political method to choose people for the public offices. (members of government, members of parliament, members of local government and in some federal system governors)
Functions of Elections • Two different views on elections: • Bottom-up: Political Accountability • Through elections politicians are held accountable. • Top-down: Political Influence • Through elections politicians ensure their control on the public.
Bottom-up approach • Recruiting politicians: Elections are the principal source of political recruiting. • Making governments: Through elections people choose political executives for the government. • Providing representation: Elections are means through which demands are channelled from the public to government. • Influencing policy: Elections can influence government policies. Elections are means of choosing among different policies.People vote for policies.
Top-down approach • Educating Voters: Election campaigns provide voters information about policies, political parties, current government’s actions. • Building legitimacy: Elections foster legitimacy. Elections provide justification for the government. • Strengthening elites: Through elections elites manipulate the public opinion, influence the decisions of the masses. Elections only give citizens a impression/sense of being influential on politics but in reality voters are manipulated by politicians.
Electoral Systems • Proportional Representation (Nisbitemsilsistemi) v. Majoritarian Representation (Cogunluksistemi) • The principle of proportional representation is that parties should be represented in an assembly or parliament in direct proportion to their overall political strength. (Seats=percentage of votes) • The principle of majoritarian representation is that an individual candidate who wins the most vote gains the right of representing the whole population.
Single member plurality system (Teküyeliçoğunluksistemi) • First past the post (En fazlaoyalankazanir) • Used in the UK, USA, Canada, India • Single-member for each constituency (secimbolgesi) • Voters select one candidate • The winner needs to achieve a plurality of votes
Pros and Cons • Pros: • Voters know who they are voting for. • A clear mandate given to the government. • Extremist/radical parties are kept out of the system • Usually it creates single party government • Cons: • Wastes many votes • Under-representation of small parties • Tendency towards two-party system
Second Ballot System (ikiturluveyaikincioylamasistemi) • Used in France • Similar to the first past the post. • Single member constituencies • Two-round system. • To win in the first ballot, a candidate needs an overall majority of the votes cast. • If no first-ballot majority, a second ballot is held between two candidates which won the most votes in the first ballot.
Pros and Cons • Pros: • Gives a second chance/choice/thinking for voters • Candidates in the second ballot has to appeal as broad as possible • Strong and stable government is possible. • Cons: • Unfair to third parties • Candidates on the second ballot abandon their principles and support short-term populist policies in order to make alliances with other candidates who lost in the first ballot • Second ballot means waste of time and money
Alternative Vote System (AlternatifOysistemi) • Used in Australia • Single-member constituencies • There is preferential voting. Voters rank the candidates in order of their preferences. • Winning candidate needs 50% of the overall votes. • If no candidate reaches 50% votes given to last candidate are distributed according to the second preferences.
Pros and Cons • Pros: • Fewer votes are wasted. • Unlike second-ballot system the results are not influenced by deals between candidates. • Strong/ single-party governments remains as a possibility. • Cons: • Still a majoritarian system and biased towards big parties • The outcome of the result can be skewed by the preferences of small party voters
Additional member system (İlaveÜyeliksistemi) • Used in Germany, Italy and Russia • Proportional representation. • A specified percentage of seats are chosen by the first past the post • The remaining seats are filled using a party list. • Voters cast two votes: one for an individual candidate and the other vote for a political party.
Pros and Cons • Pros: • Hybrid system that aims to balance majoritarian system with a party list system in favour of proportional representation • Possibility of a single-party government • Provides an opportunity for voters to choose their individual representatives and also to choose a political party • Cons: • Proportional representation is limited. • System creates two types of representatives: one type burdened with voters’ demands while the other group of representatives have higher status and prospect for ministerial office.
Single Transferable Vote System (AktarılabilirTeklioysistemi) • Used in the Republic of Ireland. • Multimember constituencies. • Electors vote accordingly to their preferences similar to alternative vote system. • Candidates are elected if they gain a minimum number of votes. • If not all seats are filled, then the votes given to the last candidate redistributed.
Pros and cons • Pros: • More proportional than other systems • Fosters competition amongst candidates from the same party for the seats. • Cons: • Proportional representation remains limited. • Strong and stable single party is unlikely.
Party-list system (PartiListesi) • Used throughout Europe, Turkey. • Large number of multimember constituencies. • Parties offer a list of candidates • Electors vote for parties not for candidates. • Parties are allocated seats proportional to the votes they gain • There might be a threshold (secimbaraji) such as 5 % or 10 %.
Pros and Cons • Pros: • Most proportional system. • Provided that women and minority candidates are placed at the top of the party list it helps such groups to be represented. • Gives equal opportunity to small parties to be represented in the parliament and emphasizes negotiation and cooperation. • Cons: • Existence of small parties lead to weak governments and coalitions • The link between representatives and their voters is broken. • Unpopular candidates can be elected if they are put on the top of the party list. • Party politics becomes a leader-driven politics.
Pros and Cons of Majoritarian Systems • Pros: • Strong and stable government /Single party government • Link between representatives and constituencies • Radical parties are not elected. • Cons: • Votes of losing candidates are not counted at all. • Under-representation of small parties • Undermines the legitimacy of the government.
Pros and Cons of Proportional Representation • Pros: • Fair to all parties (if the threshold is not too high) • Proportional representation of political parties • Allows the representation of small parties and enable them to influence government policies through negotiations and bargaining. • Cons: • Tendency towards coalitions and usually weak governments • Representatives are usually out of touch from their voters. • Party leaders dominate party politics as he/she decides who will be in the party list. Creates leader-centred political parties.
What are the determining factors of voting behaviour? • 1) Party Identity: Affiliation with a political party • 2) Sociological: Social classes, social divisions and minority groups. Middle class vs. working class • 3) Rational choice: choosing the political party with the best policies that serve your interests. • 4) Dominant Ideology: Claims that through the mass media and election campaigning people’s choices are manipulated by a dominant ideology. The role of the mass media is crucial according to this model.
