ETHICAL APPROACHES

1. ETHICAL APPROACHES • JUSTICE • ETHICS OF CARE • RIGHTS • UTILITARIANISM

2. JUSTICE

3. JUSTICE • Justice is the ideal, morally correct state of things and persons. • It is based on individual moral rights. • Justice can be handled in three subcategories which are distributive justice, retributive justice, and compensatory justice.

4. JUSTICE

5. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE • It is interested in the fair distribution of society’s benefits and burdens. • The main principle of distributive justice is; “If individuals are similar in the relevant aspects, they should be given similar benefits and burdens; if they are not, they should be treated dissimilarly in proportion to their dissimilarity.”

6. DISTRIBUTICE JUSTICE VİEWS • Justice as Equality: Egalitarianism • Justice Based on Contribution: Capitalist Justice • Justice Based on Needs and Abilities: Socialism • Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism • Justice as Fairness: Rawls

7. Justice as Equality: Egalitarianism • Each individual in the society or group should be given exactly the equal shares of benefits and burdens. • There are objections to this view claiming that people do not have the same degree in a single aspect and some characteristics are disregarded like need, ability, and effort.

8. Justice Based on Contribution:Capitalist Justice • What should be the basis of an individual’s share of benefits must be the contribution to the society or group. • Work effort, productivity, and market forces of supply and demand are the terms argued by critics to measure the value of contribution.

9. Justice Based on Needs and Abilities: Socialism • People’s abilities should be the determiner of work burdens and their needs should be the determiner of benefits. • Potential, which is a value, can only be realized by exercising ability so burdens should be distributed considering abilities. • There is an opposing argument claiming that if needs, not effort, determine benefits, there will be no motivation to strive which will decline productivity in return.

10. Justice as Freedom: Libertarianism • Free individual choices are the cornerstone of the libertarian view of justice according to Robert Nozick, a famous libertarian. • Freedom from coercion is the right of every individual. If an individual is forced to do something, it is unjust. • This argument completely disregards people needs counting freedom from coercion supreme over anything.

11. Justice as Fairness: Rawls • According to John Rawls, two principles should be used to distribute the benefits and burdens of a society justly. • First principle, called as principle of equal liberty, states that each individual has a right to protect his/her liberties from invasion by others. • Second principle consists of two parts. First part, called as difference principle, says that although there will be inequalities in the society, most needy people should be given special importance unless this causes everyone get worse than before. Second part, called as principle of fair equality of opportunity, argues that every individual be given an equal opportunity to qualify for the more privileged positions in society’s institutions.

12. RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE • All, and only, guilty people deserve appropriate punishment. • In order to maintain justice while punishing the person, some criteria should be taken into account. First, ignorant or unable people should not be punished. Second, there must be evidence of guilt. Finally, punishment system must be consistent and proportionate

13. COMPENSATORY JUSTICE • It deals with just offsetting the loss of a person who is wronged by others. • The rationale behind this theory is that the person who damages someone else by doing a wrong must compensate that person’s loss.

14. ETHICS OF CARE

15. ETHICS OF CARE • People have an obligation to exercise special care toward those particular persons with whom we have worthy close relationships. This theory is known as “ethics of care”. • Feminist ethicists, Carol Gilligan mostly, have developed this theory. They claim that women approach ethical issues from a nonindividualistic focus on relationships and caring.

16. ETHICS OF CARE • Sometimes care and justice contradicts with each other.

17. RIGHTS

18. RIGHTS • Aright is an individual’s entitlement to something. • If this entitlement may be derived from a legal system that allows the person to behave in a certain way, it is called a legal right. • Rights can also be the consequences of moral standards. In this case, they are called as moral rights or human rights.

19. RIGHTS • Rights can be understood in several ways. They can be interpreted as absence of prohibitions,authority, or existence of prohibitions.

20. RIGHTS • MORAL RIGHTS • They are tightly correlated with duties because what is one’s right is another’s duty. • Moral rights enable individuals in the free trace of their interests. • Moral rights constitute a basis for justifying one’s actions and for invoking the protection or assistance of others

21. THE BASIS OF RIGHTS • Utilitarians argue that moral rights exist because their existence maximizes utility. However, right is an entitlement and it should be regardless of utility maximization so there should be another source of moral rights

22. THE BASIS OF RIGHTS • Immanuel Kant (Categorical Imperative) • Everyone has a moral right to such treatment and everyone has again the correlative duty to treat others in this way.

23. KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE • An action is morally right for a person if that person is absolutely sure that s/he will approve the same action of another person. • An action is morally right if a person does not use other people as means to attain his/her interest but respects them.

24. UTILITARIANISM

25. UTILITARIANISM • Utilitarianism is a general term which argues that actions and policies should be evaluated on the basis of the benefits and costs they will have on society. • Correct action is the one producing the greatest net benefits or lowest net costs.

26. UTILITARIANISM • Utilitarian approach requires a three-step process. • List the alternative actions to be applied in a certain situation • Measure all costs and benefits of all alternatives • Subtract the benefits from the costs and find the action with the net greatest benefits or net lowest costs

27. UTILITARIANISM • The net greatest benefit for all people affected by the action, not just the person doing the action

28. UTILITARIANISM • Utilitarianism has its origins in the works of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, but as a specific school of thought, it was originally proposed by Jeremy Bentham. • From the principle of utility, Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world: "nature has put man under the governance of two sovereign masters: pleasure and pain."

29. UTILITARIANISM • Some critics argue that it contradicts with both justice and rights. • They say that while maximizing the gain of society in an action, they engage in unjust actions or they violate some people’s rights. • Utilitarians have developed an alternative version of utilitarianism, which is rule- utilitarianism.

30. RULE-UTILITARIANISM • The theory of rule-utilitarian is composed of two principles. • An action is ethically right if and only if it would be required by correct moral rules. • A moral rule is correct if and only if the sum total of utilities produced if everybody to follow that rule is greater than the sum total utilities produced if everyone to follow some alternative rule.

31. UTILITARIANISM • It targets the net greatest benefit for all people affected from the action. • People affected from this action have a stake in this decision.In other words, they are the stakeholders of this action. • Enterprises should not disregard this approach in their businesses in today’s highly competitive world.

32. Niccolò Machiavelli 1469-1527 An Italian politician philosopher best known for his work "The Prince” detailing his theory of government and maxims of practical statecraft suggesting certain principles of conduct specifically: cunning, duplicity, or bad faith.

33. The main theme of this short book is that all means may be resorted to for the establishment and preservation of authority and that the worst and most unethical and unreliable acts of the ruler are justified by the wickedness of the governed. Machiavelli principles have more to do with the efficient management of government, making management and control priority over morality

34. WHAT IS ETHICAL CODE? • Ethic codes is the total of behavior principles specific to each organization. These principles help employees understand, what these rules are, in what way they affect their behaviors, what kind of sanctions there are if they do not obey these rules • Ethic codes provide a framework for employees to approach work life and organizational functioning with a pragmatic view.

35. HOW IS ETHICAL CODE DEVELOPED? Developing ethical code, it will be helpful to apply a democratic and participative method and to make code prepared by a committee selected through election.

36. The ethical program to ensure that ethical behaviors are implemented in an organization is composed of the 12 steps.

37. 1.Vision Statement 2.Values Statement 3.Organizational Ethic Principles 4.Ethic Officials 5.Ethic Committees 6.Ethic Communication Strategy 7.Ethic Education 8.Ethic Help Line 9.Assessment and Awarding 10.Supervision and Monitoring 11. Performance Measurement 12.Ethic Leadership

38. HOW IS ETHICAL CODE IMPLEMENTED? • The contribution of organization • Motivation • Communication • Associating culture with ethics