A2 Historical enquiry: India and the British Empire, 1757-1947

1. A2 Historical enquiry: India and the British Empire, 1757-1947

2. British India after the Mutiny – h/w feedback • Constitutional change – Crown control replaced BEIC p.14-15 • Government structure p.14-15 and p.21-22 • Policy changes towards religion and participation of Indians in government (include the ICS and difficulties for Indian applicants) p.15-17 • Modernisation and exploitation of India’s resources p.17 • British attitudes to India (p.18 the Ilbert Bill and p.20 the White Man’s Burden) • The Aligarh movement and the INC (include Indian Council Act) p.17, p. 19 • Idea of paramountcy p.24

3. Constitutional change – Crown control replaced BEIC • EIC abolished – British took control of former EIC territories • Mughal Empire bought to an end • Queen Victoria declared ruler of India – warm relationship. Origins of mutual admiration lie in the Royal Proclamation of 1858 (suggested personal respect for Indians and interest in their advancement). Special relationship developed in 1877 as the Queen became Empress of India • Proclamation seen by British as policy to cautiously develop Indian involvement, Indians would come to see it as foundation for self-govt though importantly not at the time – independence not envisaged and educated Indians saw British rule as helpful for social and economic development • Treaties with Indian princes to bring them under indirect control. Permitted them to continue to rule – partly reward for loyalty in Mutiny, partly to save government expense. Twin-track approach – pressured to recognise benefits of British dominance and not to challenge it, but also investment in education and training in their states. Elaborate hierarchy of honours and privileges appealed to the princes

4. Government structure • p.22 for clear diagram of governance structure • People of Britain and British India were crown subjects – monarch was head of state in Parliament • Governor-general takes title of Viceroy – accountable to Parliament. Had considerable powers of delegated government and absolute power in states of emergency. Supreme representative of the monarch, appointed by the PM and accountable to secretary of state (personal and political relationship of these 2 post holders was important for developments in India) • Secretary of state for India – responsible for Indian affairs. Accountable to Parliament and advised by the India Council • Military commander-in-chief in India – oversaw 3 armies still based on the presidencies of the EIC. Advised by national Legislative Council (dominated by British officials) • Govt recognised need to keep in touch with Indian public opinion – cautious measures to involve Indians in govt e.g. Indian advisers appointed to Legislative Council • 11 British provinces had governors, advised by provincial councils (only certain matters permitted for discussion and decision)

5. Policy changes towards religion and participation of Indians in government Religion: • Recognition that religious insensitivities had partly caused rebellion – Proclamation set out policy to prevent religious intervention. Has been argued that this lays foundations separate rights for different religious communities which led to partition • British intervene less in moral and religious matters – turn instead to social projects ‘trains and drains’ • Growth in secular education and in intellectual and cultural debate – attempts to modernise religious attitudes among Hindus and Muslims Participation of Indians in government: • Growing sense of India as a nation in the making (provides conditions for nationalism to grow) • Jobs in ICS opened up to Indians however, entry was by exam – little education in India itself and examinations held in Britain – prohibitively expensive for many Indians. Growing resentment results in exam being switched to India in the 1890sbut by 1913 Indians made up only 5% of the ICS • In recognition of these barriers, drive to increase education – investment to support local initiatives. Slow progress but huge expansion in higher educational opportunity. Growth of education in English language and of professional employment created an Indian middle class ‘which was to become the fertile soil of the nationalist movement.’

6. Modernisation and exploitation of India’s resources • Progress in communications and transport • Railway network expanded – military and governmental reasons, to stimulate trade and economy, to prepare for the transport of foodstuffs in likelihood of famines and dry spells • Modernisation of Great Trunk Road linking Calcutta with the Punjab • Growing telegraph network + railways = circulation of English-language newspapers which were expanding due to technology and growth of the middle class. This fed a growing national consciousness that transcended geographical and linguistic divisions • Growing trade with Britain – export of raw materials (cotton, jute, rice, tea) and import of manufactured goods (cotton, steel, engineering) helped create an international outlook and connections with global (imperialist) economies

7. British attitudes to India The Ilbert Bill • Even with emergence of an Indian middle class, the British were withdrawing as a social group – aloof from the new India and shunned contact. Turned themselves into an ‘ultra-caste’ obsessed with their own affairs. Attitude seen in practice with reaction to the 1883 Ilbert Bill • Bill was a rational consequence of increasing numbers of Indians entering the legal profession and judiciary, as qualified and experienced as Britons. It meant that white Britons would be tried by Indians judges – led to uproar • Mutiny fear returned – white British women left to mercies of local males, who failed to protect their women from terrors of sati. ‘White mutiny’ – British made it clear they’d refuse to obey the bill so it was amended – all-white juries would reach verdict on white defendants • Two-fold effect on educated Indian opinion – increased pessimism that British would ever truly respect Indians, let alone give them responsibility and power. Led to more support for developing nationalist ideas. Second, success of threatened widespread passive resistance to rule of law was noted for future reference e.g. by Gandhi. Challenged notion of Indian ‘integrity’ White Man’s Burden • British willingly shouldered this burden – passing on and nurturing European culture and civilisation. Responsibility was self-defined and self-justifying • Development of an educated elite by 1900 was becoming a challenge to the British – growth was outstripping employment opportunities – created discontent but also meant this group had time on its hands to imagine a different way of governing India. Wrote letters to newspapers to share ideas and complaints

8. The Aligarh movement and the INC The Aligarh movement • Leading Indians took steps to regenerate society through education and modernisation. Aim – create a Westernised intellectual class, increase Indian self-respect and British confidence by adoption of cooperative and forward-looking ideas • Particularly Muslim community who still felt blamed for the Mutiny • 1875 – foundation of Aligarh College by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, 1913 becomes full university – Islamic studies, Urdu, Western science, literature and history • Aligarh movement across India – aim to increase Muslim prominence in social affairs. Khan supported Hindu/Muslim unity but movement also initiated idea of two self-respecting communal nations within India • Rejected involvement in any agitation and members told not to join Congress Party after its formation – also determined to secure special political representation for Muslims • Led to formation of political party in 1906 – All-India Muslim League. Muslim League under Jinnah would eventually be driving force for partition The INC • Indian National Congress formed 1885 – some saw it as response to the Ilbert Bill but its origins date back to imperial durbar of January 1877. Gathering of representatives from all over India agreed to meet in private to discuss ‘present situation and future prospects.’ • First meetings were educational but Congress quickly became a recognisable political party – driving force for nationalism and independence over next 50yrs • Founder was a Scot, AO Hume – early years argued for only slight concessions from the Raj, which it regarded as a good thing for India – one such concession: 1892 Indian Council Act – modestly increased number of Indians on local councils

9. Idea of paramountcy Paramountcy • Paramount power – diplomatic term for most powerful force, often an occupying army • Princely states forced to acknowledge Britain as the p.p. in India – sweetened as a treaty guaranteeing British military protection • British reserved and exercised right to remove a prince working against British interest or causing trouble with neighbouring princes • British official placed in each royal court to monitor the princes • Non intervention over issues of sati, female infanticide and slavery – post-rebellion policy. Focused mainly on persuading princes to reduce their armed forces – sometimes enforced by military intervention • Rulers encouraged to establish colleges to educate their sons, moulded on British public schools • Some acquired taste for European style and used their wealth to live in Britain – caused some concern about resentment along the population but of greater concern were rulers who were so progressive they veered towards nationalist sentiments

10. The early Indian nationalist movements L.O Be able to explain the foundations of the INC and use sources to analyse Indian and British attitudes

11. Hindus Indian National Congress 1885 Idea proposed by AO Hume in order to reduce impact of revolutionary ideas At first, very loyal and submissive By 1905, radical and moderate wings developed Some Indians beginning to resent British rule, in response to British contempt for them Muslims Aligarh movement – religious and social revival but also: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan – conscious of Muslims’ potential political disadvantage in a future self-governing India Very few Muslims in Congress Development of Hindu activism led to foundation of Muslim League, 1906 The early nationalist movements: Key points

12. Early nationalism – source work • Use the documents to answer the questions on your sheet (note that it is double sided!) • You have 2 lessons to complete this and feedback your answers

13. Early nationalism – source work • What are your findings? • The key point to note is that the early representative movements are loyal. They start to become radicalised partly in reaction to Curzon’s inflammatory policies which we will look at next lesson