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2. Presentation Goals. To present an overview of ethics as they pertain to supervision.To present key ethical guidelines regarding client rights, informed consent for the supervisee, multicultural issues, and other current issues. To present information concerning the growing practice of superv
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1. Ethical Issues in the Practice of Supervision Perry C. Francis
Department of Counseling
2. 2 Presentation Goals To present an overview of ethics as they pertain to supervision.
To present key ethical guidelines regarding client rights, informed consent for the supervisee, multicultural issues, and other current issues.
To present information concerning the growing practice of supervision via the WWW and how ethics pertain to this practice.
3. 3 Growing Complexity The practice of supervision has grown more complex in recent years. Issues of client rights, informed consent for the supervisee, on-site supervision by untrained supervisors, and multicultural issues (to name just a few issues) have all served to enhance or detract from the practice of supervision.
Ethical guidelines serve to help the supervisor and the supervisee gain the most benefit from the supervision experience and provide the best care possible for the client.
4. 4 Growing Complexity This presentation will offer information about the current ethical guidelines for supervision from ACES and ACA and how they are applied to the practice of supervision.
5. 5 Supervision Defined Supervision has been defined as a means of transmitting the skills, knowledge, and attitudes of a particular profession to the next generation in that profession (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, p. 2).
For those who are involved in the training of mental health professionals, it also is a means of ensuring that clients receive a certain minimum quality of care while trainees work with them to gain their skills (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, p. 2). Supervision has been defined as a means of transmitting the skills, knowledge, and attitudes of a particular profession to the next generation in that profession (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, p. 2).
For those who are involved in the training of mental health professionals, supervision is also a means of ensuring that clients receive a certain minimum quality of care while trainees work with them to gain their skills (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, p. 2).
Applying these definitions to the practice of supervision has become an increasingly complex endeavor for both the counseling supervisor and the supervisee. This increased complexity has come about for several reasons including the growth of the body of knowledge concerning supervision, the legal implications and resulting liability issues, and the growth of the application of ethics to supervision.
This presentation will focus on the unique ethical issues and practices in the supervision of counselors and counselors-in-training (supervisees). Supervision has been defined as a means of transmitting the skills, knowledge, and attitudes of a particular profession to the next generation in that profession (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, p. 2).
For those who are involved in the training of mental health professionals, supervision is also a means of ensuring that clients receive a certain minimum quality of care while trainees work with them to gain their skills (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992, p. 2).
Applying these definitions to the practice of supervision has become an increasingly complex endeavor for both the counseling supervisor and the supervisee. This increased complexity has come about for several reasons including the growth of the body of knowledge concerning supervision, the legal implications and resulting liability issues, and the growth of the application of ethics to supervision.
This presentation will focus on the unique ethical issues and practices in the supervision of counselors and counselors-in-training (supervisees).
6. 6 Ethics Defined Ethics has been defined as the process of making moral decisions about individuals and their interactions in society while still attempting to protect the rights and welfare of those same individuals (Kurpius et al., 1991, p. 48).
With this definition in mind, ethics used by professional counselors focus on being sure that one has the correct combination of education, practice, and experience to help people deal with the issues and problems they bring to the counselors office. Ethics has been defined as the process of making moral decisions about individuals and their interactions in society while still attempting to protect the rights and welfare of those same individuals (Kurpius et al., 1991, p. 48).
With this definition in mind, ethics used by professional counselors focus on being sure that one has the correct combination of education, practice, and experience to help people deal with the issues and problems they bring to the counselors office. Ethics has been defined as the process of making moral decisions about individuals and their interactions in society while still attempting to protect the rights and welfare of those same individuals (Kurpius et al., 1991, p. 48).
With this definition in mind, ethics used by professional counselors focus on being sure that one has the correct combination of education, practice, and experience to help people deal with the issues and problems they bring to the counselors office.
7. 7 Ethics Defined Supervisors who practice ethically make sure they have the correct combination of education, practice, and experience to help supervisees develop their skills and talents so that they (the supervisees) can help people deal with the issues and problems they bring into the counselors office. Supervisors who practice ethically make sure they have the correct combination of education, practice, and experience to help supervisees develop their skills and talents so that they (the supervisee) can help people deal with the issues and problems they bring into the counselors office. Supervisors who practice ethically make sure they have the correct combination of education, practice, and experience to help supervisees develop their skills and talents so that they (the supervisee) can help people deal with the issues and problems they bring into the counselors office.
8. 8 Administrative vs. Clinical Administrative supervision can be understood as those supervisory activities that increase the efficiency of the delivery of counseling services (ACES, 1995, p. 270).
Clinical supervision includes the supportive and educative activities of the supervisor designed to improve the application of counseling theory and technique directly to clients (ACES, 1995, p. 270). In order to proceed, we must make a distinction between ADMINISTRATIVE SUPERVISION AND CLINICAL SUPERVISION.
Administrative supervision can be understood as those supervisory activities that increase the efficiency of the delivery of counseling services (ACES, 1995, p. 270).
Examples are most commonly found in the profession of school counseling (Roberts & Borders, 1994; Wilson & Remley, 1987) where the professional school counselor not only supplies the counseling services, but also manages the developmental guidance program of the school (Myrick, 1997). The supervisee not only receives supervision concerning his or her skills as a counselor, but also receives training concerning the efficient administration of the program within the school (Barret & Schmidt, 1986).
Clinical supervision includes the supportive and educative activities of the supervisor designed to improve the application of counseling theory and technique directly to clients (ACES, 1995, p. 270). The focus of this type of supervision is on improving the skills and training of the counselor-in-training, supporting and expanding the skills and training of the working counselor, increasing self-awareness in both, and insuring a quality of care to the client.
It will be important to understand which type of supervision you are providing or that is being provided to you. Ethics are apply to each type of supervision. In order to proceed, we must make a distinction between ADMINISTRATIVE SUPERVISION AND CLINICAL SUPERVISION.
Administrative supervision can be understood as those supervisory activities that increase the efficiency of the delivery of counseling services (ACES, 1995, p. 270).
Examples are most commonly found in the profession of school counseling (Roberts & Borders, 1994; Wilson & Remley, 1987) where the professional school counselor not only supplies the counseling services, but also manages the developmental guidance program of the school (Myrick, 1997). The supervisee not only receives supervision concerning his or her skills as a counselor, but also receives training concerning the efficient administration of the program within the school (Barret & Schmidt, 1986).
Clinical supervision includes the supportive and educative activities of the supervisor designed to improve the application of counseling theory and technique directly to clients (ACES, 1995, p. 270). The focus of this type of supervision is on improving the skills and training of the counselor-in-training, supporting and expanding the skills and training of the working counselor, increasing self-awareness in both, and insuring a quality of care to the client.
It will be important to understand which type of supervision you are providing or that is being provided to you. Ethics are apply to each type of supervision.
9. 9 Ethics & Supervision The counseling supervisor:
should have sufficient knowledge, skill, and judgment to use efficacious interventions with the supervisee and the client the supervisee is working with
respects the human dignity and freedom of the supervisee and client
uses the power of the supervisors role responsibly for both the supervisee and client
act in ways that promote confidence in the profession of supervision and public confidence in the profession of counseling. Ethics & Supervision
Codes of ethics provide the professional with general standards and broad guidelines that help define relationships, outline rules of right conduct, suggest educational requirements for practice, and promote the welfare and dignity of all parties involved in the counseling or supervisory relationship (Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 1998; Welfel, 1998). Welfel (1998) identified four dimensions encompassed by these professional ethics:
1. having sufficient knowledge, skill, and judgment to use efficacious interventions
2. respecting the human dignity and freedom of the client
3. using the power in the counselors role responsible
4. acting in ways that promote public confidence in the profession of counseling (p.3-4).
With a few word changes, the same can be said of those professionals who supervise counselors and counselors-in-training in the many and various settings of the profession. The counseling supervisor:
1. should have sufficient knowledge, skill, and judgment to use efficacious interventions with the supervisee and the client the supervisee is working with
2. respects the human dignity and freedom of the supervisee and client
3. uses the power of the supervisors role responsibly for both the supervisee and client
4. act in ways that promote confidence in the profession of supervision and public confidence in the profession of counseling.
A benefit to ethical practice in supervision and appropriate supervisory training is that the working alliance with supervisees is strengthened, there is a greater agreement on the goals of supervision, and a stronger emotional bond between the supervisor and the supervisee is created (Ladany et al., 1999). Ethics & Supervision
Codes of ethics provide the professional with general standards and broad guidelines that help define relationships, outline rules of right conduct, suggest educational requirements for practice, and promote the welfare and dignity of all parties involved in the counseling or supervisory relationship (Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 1998; Welfel, 1998). Welfel (1998) identified four dimensions encompassed by these professional ethics:
1. having sufficient knowledge, skill, and judgment to use efficacious interventions
2. respecting the human dignity and freedom of the client
3. using the power in the counselors role responsible
4. acting in ways that promote public confidence in the profession of counseling (p.3-4).
With a few word changes, the same can be said of those professionals who supervise counselors and counselors-in-training in the many and various settings of the profession. The counseling supervisor:
1. should have sufficient knowledge, skill, and judgment to use efficacious interventions with the supervisee and the client the supervisee is working with
2. respects the human dignity and freedom of the supervisee and client
3. uses the power of the supervisors role responsibly for both the supervisee and client
4. act in ways that promote confidence in the profession of supervision and public confidence in the profession of counseling.
A benefit to ethical practice in supervision and appropriate supervisory training is that the working alliance with supervisees is strengthened, there is a greater agreement on the goals of supervision, and a stronger emotional bond between the supervisor and the supervisee is created (Ladany et al., 1999).
10. 10 Ethical Issues in Supervision Unique ethical issues can be separated into three broad categories:
Issues dealing with client welfare and rights;
Issues dealing with supervisor and supervisee relationship;
Issues dealing with administrative supervision. Unique Ethical Issues in the Supervision of Counselors
As the field of supervision has become more complex, so too has the application of ethics to this field. This has required a greater degree of sophistication and depth of knowledge concerning ethics on the part of counselor and counselor-in-training as well as the supervisor. This is due in part to the many unique ethical issues that are brought about in supervision including:
Supervisory training & education (Bernard, 1981, 1982; Disney & Stephens, 1994; Navin et al., 1995; Patrick, 1989; Welfel, 1998)
The supervisory relationship (the supervisor as teacher, evaluator, and facilitator of the supervisees growth and self awareness) (Bernard, 1987; Bradley, 1989b; Kurpius et al., 1991)
Supervising or counseling the supervisees (Bradley, 1989a; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Neufeldt & Nelson, 1999; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987)
Dual relationships in supervision (Bernard, 1987; Bradley, 1989b; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Larrabee & Miller, 1993; Patrick, 1989);
The triadic nature of supervision (Corey et al., 1998; Kurpius et al., 1991; Upchurch, 1985; Welfel, 1998)
Issues of informed consent for the counseling supervisor, counselor, and the client (Corey et al., 1998; Disney & Stephens, 1994; Harrar, VandeCreek, & Knapp, 1990; McCarthy, Sugden, Lamendola, Maurer, & Renninger, 1995; Welfel, 1998)
These and other unique issues can be separated into three broad categories:
1) Issues dealing with client welfare and rights;
2) Issues dealing with supervisor and supervisee relationship;
3) Issues dealing with administrative supervision.
Unique Ethical Issues in the Supervision of Counselors
As the field of supervision has become more complex, so too has the application of ethics to this field. This has required a greater degree of sophistication and depth of knowledge concerning ethics on the part of counselor and counselor-in-training as well as the supervisor. This is due in part to the many unique ethical issues that are brought about in supervision including:
Supervisory training & education (Bernard, 1981, 1982; Disney & Stephens, 1994; Navin et al., 1995; Patrick, 1989; Welfel, 1998)
The supervisory relationship (the supervisor as teacher, evaluator, and facilitator of the supervisees growth and self awareness) (Bernard, 1987; Bradley, 1989b; Kurpius et al., 1991)
Supervising or counseling the supervisees (Bradley, 1989a; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Neufeldt & Nelson, 1999; Stoltenberg & Delworth, 1987)
Dual relationships in supervision (Bernard, 1987; Bradley, 1989b; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Larrabee & Miller, 1993; Patrick, 1989);
The triadic nature of supervision (Corey et al., 1998; Kurpius et al., 1991; Upchurch, 1985; Welfel, 1998)
Issues of informed consent for the counseling supervisor, counselor, and the client (Corey et al., 1998; Disney & Stephens, 1994; Harrar, VandeCreek, & Knapp, 1990; McCarthy, Sugden, Lamendola, Maurer, & Renninger, 1995; Welfel, 1998)
These and other unique issues can be separated into three broad categories:
1) Issues dealing with client welfare and rights;
2) Issues dealing with supervisor and supervisee relationship;
3) Issues dealing with administrative supervision.
11. 11 Client Welfare & Rights Triadic Relationship
Supervision appears to be a process that involves two people: the supervisor and the supervisee. In actuality, there is a minimum of three or more people involved in the supervisory relationship: the supervisor, the supervisee, and the client(s). This has been referred to as a triadic relationship (Kurpius et al., 1991; Upchurch, 1985). Supervision appears to be a process that involves two people: the supervisor and the supervisee. In actuality, there is a minimum of three or more people involved in the supervisory relationship: the supervisor, the supervisee, and the client(s). This has been referred to as a triadic relationship (Kurpius et al., 1991; Upchurch, 1985).
This triadic relationship requires that the client know that the counselor he or she is working with is participating in supervision (informed consent) and that the supervisor is monitoring the relationship between the client and the counselor (Harrar et al., 1990; Sherry, 1991; Welfel, 1998).
In this relationship, the supervisee and client(s) are the beneficiaries of the skill and training provided by the supervisor. They are also affected by the ethical decision making skill of the supervisor.
In essence, the supervisor is assuming the responsibility for the ethical and therapeutic behavior of the supervisee. The supervisor is not only enhancing the skills of the supervisee, but also providing a benefit to the client involved in the therapeutic relationship with the supervisee (Harrar et al., 1990; Sherry, 1991).
While it is the primary obligation of the supervisor to train the supervisee, the supervisor does so with the understanding that the training focuses on providing for the welfare of the client. If the supervisee displays behavior that is clearly not in the best interest of the client and is unwilling or unable to change that behavior, the supervisor is ethically and in some cases legally responsible to intervene (Jordan & Quinn, 1996; Welfel, 1998). Supervision appears to be a process that involves two people: the supervisor and the supervisee. In actuality, there is a minimum of three or more people involved in the supervisory relationship: the supervisor, the supervisee, and the client(s). This has been referred to as a triadic relationship (Kurpius et al., 1991; Upchurch, 1985).
This triadic relationship requires that the client know that the counselor he or she is working with is participating in supervision (informed consent) and that the supervisor is monitoring the relationship between the client and the counselor (Harrar et al., 1990; Sherry, 1991; Welfel, 1998).
In this relationship, the supervisee and client(s) are the beneficiaries of the skill and training provided by the supervisor. They are also affected by the ethical decision making skill of the supervisor.
In essence, the supervisor is assuming the responsibility for the ethical and therapeutic behavior of the supervisee. The supervisor is not only enhancing the skills of the supervisee, but also providing a benefit to the client involved in the therapeutic relationship with the supervisee (Harrar et al., 1990; Sherry, 1991).
While it is the primary obligation of the supervisor to train the supervisee, the supervisor does so with the understanding that the training focuses on providing for the welfare of the client. If the supervisee displays behavior that is clearly not in the best interest of the client and is unwilling or unable to change that behavior, the supervisor is ethically and in some cases legally responsible to intervene (Jordan & Quinn, 1996; Welfel, 1998).
12. 12 Making Ethical Decisions The Supervisors Ethical Decision Tree:
Relevant legal and ethical standards
Client welfare
Supervisee welfare
Supervisor welfare
Program and/or agency service and administrative needs. (ACES, 1995, Sec. 3.29) Just like there is an ethical decision making format for counselors, there is also one for supervisors. It involves the following:
Identify the relevant legal and ethical standards.
Determine what is best for the clients welfare
Determine what is best for the supervisees welfare
Determine what is best for the supervisors welfare
Determine what is best for the programs and/or agency service and administrative needs. (ACES, 1995, Sec. 3.29) Just like there is an ethical decision making format for counselors, there is also one for supervisors. It involves the following:
Identify the relevant legal and ethical standards.
Determine what is best for the clients welfare
Determine what is best for the supervisees welfare
Determine what is best for the supervisors welfare
Determine what is best for the programs and/or agency service and administrative needs. (ACES, 1995, Sec. 3.29)
13. 13 Informed Consent for All Client needs to be aware that the counselor is under supervision so that the client can give informed consent to their participation.
Supervisor & CIT need to review local laws concerning confidentiality & privacy for client. Generally privacy & confidentiality are afforded under the supervisors credentials. As previously mentioned, the triadic relationship requires that the client be informed that he or she is working with a counselor who is under supervision. In this way the client can give informed consent to his or her participation in the sessions.
Also included in this triadic relationship are issues of privacy and confidentiality for the client (Welfel, 1998). Supervisors and supervisees need to review their states laws and regulations concerning the clients right to privacy and confidentiality while working with a counselor who is being supervised. Generally the client is afforded the same rights of privacy and confidentiality when working with a counselor-in-training as with a licensed counselor.
The right to privacy and confidentiality are generally dependant on the supervisors credentials and not the supervisees. It becomes the supervisors responsibility to monitor and insure that the supervisee is aware of the standards and procedures concerning the release of information and records concerning a client (Harrar et al., 1990; Welfel, 1998).
The supervisor is also under the same rules concerning confidentiality, privacy, duty to warn and protect as the supervisee (Harrar et al., 1990).
As previously mentioned, the triadic relationship requires that the client be informed that he or she is working with a counselor who is under supervision. In this way the client can give informed consent to his or her participation in the sessions.
Also included in this triadic relationship are issues of privacy and confidentiality for the client (Welfel, 1998). Supervisors and supervisees need to review their states laws and regulations concerning the clients right to privacy and confidentiality while working with a counselor who is being supervised. Generally the client is afforded the same rights of privacy and confidentiality when working with a counselor-in-training as with a licensed counselor.
The right to privacy and confidentiality are generally dependant on the supervisors credentials and not the supervisees. It becomes the supervisors responsibility to monitor and insure that the supervisee is aware of the standards and procedures concerning the release of information and records concerning a client (Harrar et al., 1990; Welfel, 1998).
The supervisor is also under the same rules concerning confidentiality, privacy, duty to warn and protect as the supervisee (Harrar et al., 1990).
14. 14 Crisis & Emergency Coverage CIT should not work with clients who are beyond their skill level.
Guidelines for emergency consultation and/or intervention by the supervisor need to be worked out prior to interaction with any client.
These guidelines are part of the informed consent given to the client. An often overlooked area of ethics within supervision is the arrangement made for crisis and/or emergency care of clients.
Supervisees should not be working with client populations that are beyond their skills. Yet emergencies happen and crises in clients lives present themselves to supervisees.
Guidelines for emergency consultation and, if necessary, direct intervention on the part of the supervisor need to be discussed with the supervisee prior to their first interaction with a client (Harrar et al., 1990).
This relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee is clearly stated to the client (within the informed consent policy) before counseling begins.
An often overlooked area of ethics within supervision is the arrangement made for crisis and/or emergency care of clients.
Supervisees should not be working with client populations that are beyond their skills. Yet emergencies happen and crises in clients lives present themselves to supervisees.
Guidelines for emergency consultation and, if necessary, direct intervention on the part of the supervisor need to be discussed with the supervisee prior to their first interaction with a client (Harrar et al., 1990).
This relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee is clearly stated to the client (within the informed consent policy) before counseling begins.
15. 15 Education & Training The Supervisor needs:
Supervision & training in the process of supervision.
Education & training in the population served by the CIT.
Knowledge of ones own strengths & limitations as a supervior. The beginning of ethical practice in supervision and the one principal that, according to Navin, et al. (1995), is followed the least is the proper education and training of supervisors (ACES, 1995, Section 2.01; Corey et al., 1998; Welfel, 1998). From a professional, ethical, and legal point of view, it requires specialized education and training to deal with the challenges that are brought in by CITs (Borders & Leddick, 1987; Bradley, 1989a; Corey et al., 1998; Disney & Stephens, 1994; Harrar et al., 1990; ACES, 1995, (Sections 2.01-2.04); Welfel, 1998; Upchurch, 1985). This includes formalized coursework, supervised practicum, and then continued education and consultation with peers.
Many agencies provide supervision for those counselors and counselors-in-training who are unlicensed or participating in practicums or internships. At times this supervision is provided by peers in the field or other supervisory personnel who have no training in the supervision process (Bernard, 1992; Navin et al., 1995). This is both legally unwise (Disney & Stephens, 1994), and ethically unsound (Bernard, 1992; Corey et al., 1998; Upchurch, 1985; Welfel, 1998).
Counseling supervisors are not only responsible for the education of their supervisee, they are also responsible for the welfare of the client being served by that supervisee. Supervisors should also possess specialized training in the area they will supervise (Bernard, 1987; Bernard, 1992; Corey et al., 1998; Harrar et al., 1990; Upchurch, 1985). Therefore the supervisor should not only have appropriate training in the supervisory process but also in the issues that the clients are presenting to the supervisee and the modalities the supervisee is using (Corey et al., 1998; Sherry, 1991; Upchurch, 1985; Welfel, 1998).
Not only is it ethical and important for the supervisor to have the proper training in supervision and in the specialization that the supervisee is working, it is important for the supervisor to know his or her own effectiveness and limitations (Kurpius et al., 1991; Sherry, 1991). This can be accomplished through regular continuing education, consultation with peers in the field, and feedback from supervisees. The beginning of ethical practice in supervision and the one principal that, according to Navin, et al. (1995), is followed the least is the proper education and training of supervisors (ACES, 1995, Section 2.01; Corey et al., 1998; Welfel, 1998). From a professional, ethical, and legal point of view, it requires specialized education and training to deal with the challenges that are brought in by CITs (Borders & Leddick, 1987; Bradley, 1989a; Corey et al., 1998; Disney & Stephens, 1994; Harrar et al., 1990; ACES, 1995, (Sections 2.01-2.04); Welfel, 1998; Upchurch, 1985). This includes formalized coursework, supervised practicum, and then continued education and consultation with peers.
Many agencies provide supervision for those counselors and counselors-in-training who are unlicensed or participating in practicums or internships. At times this supervision is provided by peers in the field or other supervisory personnel who have no training in the supervision process (Bernard, 1992; Navin et al., 1995). This is both legally unwise (Disney & Stephens, 1994), and ethically unsound (Bernard, 1992; Corey et al., 1998; Upchurch, 1985; Welfel, 1998).
Counseling supervisors are not only responsible for the education of their supervisee, they are also responsible for the welfare of the client being served by that supervisee. Supervisors should also possess specialized training in the area they will supervise (Bernard, 1987; Bernard, 1992; Corey et al., 1998; Harrar et al., 1990; Upchurch, 1985). Therefore the supervisor should not only have appropriate training in the supervisory process but also in the issues that the clients are presenting to the supervisee and the modalities the supervisee is using (Corey et al., 1998; Sherry, 1991; Upchurch, 1985; Welfel, 1998).
Not only is it ethical and important for the supervisor to have the proper training in supervision and in the specialization that the supervisee is working, it is important for the supervisor to know his or her own effectiveness and limitations (Kurpius et al., 1991; Sherry, 1991). This can be accomplished through regular continuing education, consultation with peers in the field, and feedback from supervisees.
16. 16 Dual Roles & Relationships The Supervisor understands:
Dual Relationships are inevitable and are to be managed properly.
That a power differential exists between the supervisor and the supervisee.
That a sexual relationship involves a power differential that contaminates any perceived intimacy. Dual roles exist in all areas of counseling and supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992; Borders & Leddick, 1987; Harrar et al., 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Whiston & Emerson, 1989).
In the university training setting the counseling supervisor may also be the instructor of the practicum and responsible for awarding grades and deciding which students continue on for advanced work and study (Patrick, 1989).
In the community clinic setting, the counseling supervisor may also be the administrator of the clinic, deciding who does what job and receives which promotion (Navin et al., 1995).
In the school setting, the counseling supervisor may also be the administrative supervisor, deciding who receives which administrative assignments within the school (Roberts & Borders, 1994).
In each case the counseling supervisor has multiple roles with the supervisee. In most cases it is not a matter of avoiding the dual roles, but how to manage the potentially conflicting relationships and power issues that are created by these roles so that the supervisors objectivity and professional judgment are not impaired and the supervisees and clients welfare are protected (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992; Harrar et al., 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992).
At the center of this morass is the issue of power (Kurpius et al., 1991; Ladany et al., 1999). Supervisors by definition hold an advantage of power over supervisees. They occupy a position of trust and are expected to act in the interest of the supervisees welfare. This advantage of power affects the relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. The supervisees recognition of this inequity may hinder his or her self-disclosures to the point that it may interfere with his or her growth as a counselor. The reverse of this can also be a problem when a supervisee does not recognize the power differential and discloses information that might unfairly put at risk the supervisees position in an agency or school. It is incumbent upon the supervisor to model the appropriate use of this power to the supervisee (Herlihy & Corey, 1997). Dual roles exist in all areas of counseling and supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992; Borders & Leddick, 1987; Harrar et al., 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992; Whiston & Emerson, 1989).
In the university training setting the counseling supervisor may also be the instructor of the practicum and responsible for awarding grades and deciding which students continue on for advanced work and study (Patrick, 1989).
In the community clinic setting, the counseling supervisor may also be the administrator of the clinic, deciding who does what job and receives which promotion (Navin et al., 1995).
In the school setting, the counseling supervisor may also be the administrative supervisor, deciding who receives which administrative assignments within the school (Roberts & Borders, 1994).
In each case the counseling supervisor has multiple roles with the supervisee. In most cases it is not a matter of avoiding the dual roles, but how to manage the potentially conflicting relationships and power issues that are created by these roles so that the supervisors objectivity and professional judgment are not impaired and the supervisees and clients welfare are protected (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992; Harrar et al., 1990; Herlihy & Corey, 1992).
At the center of this morass is the issue of power (Kurpius et al., 1991; Ladany et al., 1999). Supervisors by definition hold an advantage of power over supervisees. They occupy a position of trust and are expected to act in the interest of the supervisees welfare. This advantage of power affects the relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. The supervisees recognition of this inequity may hinder his or her self-disclosures to the point that it may interfere with his or her growth as a counselor. The reverse of this can also be a problem when a supervisee does not recognize the power differential and discloses information that might unfairly put at risk the supervisees position in an agency or school. It is incumbent upon the supervisor to model the appropriate use of this power to the supervisee (Herlihy & Corey, 1997).
17. 17 Informed Consent The Supervisor can
Use an informed consent form to help educate the CIT about the supervisory relationship, its limitations and benefits, and the supervisory process.
Informed Consent Form can include information about:
Supervision Process, Evaluation & Due Process, Ethical & Legal Issues, Professional Disclosure (training, education, etcof supervisor), Practical Issues (emergency procedures, etc) Statement of Agreement Informed Consent: A useful practice that helps ease the ethical problems that arise with dual relationships within the supervisor/supervisee relationship as well as evaluative and due process issues is the use of an informed consent procedure (Corey et al., 1998; Kurpius et al., 1991; McCarthy et al., 1995). This common counseling practice of informing the client of what to expect from the counselor in the counseling process and relationship can be used in the supervisory relationship to help outline and define what the participants expect of each other. When the supervisory relationship is clearly defined, supervision can be more productive, the quality of the supervision enhanced, and accountability can be explained and agreed upon to the satisfaction of both parties (Bartlett, 1983; Minnes, 1987). Other benefits include creating a common or agreed upon frame of reference for both parties, providing opportunity for exploration and questions about the supervisory process before it begins, clear explanations of the evaluative process and explanations of any due process or appeal procedures, dialogue about outcome goals and expectations, and providing a model for the supervisee to use in future relationships with clients and other supervisors (McCarthy et al., 1995).
Informed Consent: A useful practice that helps ease the ethical problems that arise with dual relationships within the supervisor/supervisee relationship as well as evaluative and due process issues is the use of an informed consent procedure (Corey et al., 1998; Kurpius et al., 1991; McCarthy et al., 1995). This common counseling practice of informing the client of what to expect from the counselor in the counseling process and relationship can be used in the supervisory relationship to help outline and define what the participants expect of each other. When the supervisory relationship is clearly defined, supervision can be more productive, the quality of the supervision enhanced, and accountability can be explained and agreed upon to the satisfaction of both parties (Bartlett, 1983; Minnes, 1987). Other benefits include creating a common or agreed upon frame of reference for both parties, providing opportunity for exploration and questions about the supervisory process before it begins, clear explanations of the evaluative process and explanations of any due process or appeal procedures, dialogue about outcome goals and expectations, and providing a model for the supervisee to use in future relationships with clients and other supervisors (McCarthy et al., 1995).
18. 18 Informed Consent Elements of the Informed Consent:
Purpose: A brief explanation about the consent statement, its purpose and function.
Professional Disclosure Statement: Includes the supervisors credentials and qualifications.
Practical Issues: Practical information such as phone numbers, crisis procedures, frequency, length, and location of sessions, monetary concerns, and professional development requirements, if any.
McCarthy et al. (1995) suggest that those issues that may cause the most conflict or confusion in the supervisory relationship be included in the written informed consent. They identified seven categories of practical and conflict prone issues for consideration.
Purpose: A brief explanation about the consent statement, its purpose and function.
Professional Disclosure Statement: This section would include the supervisors credentials and qualifications. Information such as the supervisors academic background, professional license(s), professional memberships, clinical experiences, theoretical orientation, (both as a practitioner and as a supervisor), and continuing education can be included.
Practical Issues: Practical information such as phone numbers, crisis procedures, frequency, length, and location of sessions, monetary concerns, and professional development requirements, if any. McCarthy et al. (1995) suggest that those issues that may cause the most conflict or confusion in the supervisory relationship be included in the written informed consent. They identified seven categories of practical and conflict prone issues for consideration.
Purpose: A brief explanation about the consent statement, its purpose and function.
Professional Disclosure Statement: This section would include the supervisors credentials and qualifications. Information such as the supervisors academic background, professional license(s), professional memberships, clinical experiences, theoretical orientation, (both as a practitioner and as a supervisor), and continuing education can be included.
Practical Issues: Practical information such as phone numbers, crisis procedures, frequency, length, and location of sessions, monetary concerns, and professional development requirements, if any.
19. 19 Informed Consent Elements of the Informed Consent:
Supervision Process: A description of the process, expectations, and objectives of supervision is included here.
Evaluation and Due Process: The ethical guidelines point out that the supervisor is responsible for reviewing work samples of the supervisee, providing ongoing and regular feedback in a variety of forms and formats, and meeting regularly in face-to-face sessions with the supervisee. Outlining these requirements and responsibilities of both parties will prevent confusion and promote clear communication. Supervision Process: A description of the process, expectations, and objectives of supervision is included here. Included here are the definitions of the roles and responsibilities of each party.
Evaluation and Due Process: The ethical guidelines (ACES, 1995, Sec 2.06, 2.07, 2.08) point out that the supervisor is responsible for reviewing work samples of the supervisee, providing ongoing and regular feedback in a variety of forms and formats, and meeting regularly in face-to-face sessions with the supervisee. Outlining these requirements and responsibilities of both parties will prevent confusion and promote clear communication. The specific evaluation procedure and any forms are therefore described in this section. Also detailed here are the means for appeal and complaints should the supervisee find occasion for needing them.
Supervision Process: A description of the process, expectations, and objectives of supervision is included here. Included here are the definitions of the roles and responsibilities of each party.
Evaluation and Due Process: The ethical guidelines (ACES, 1995, Sec 2.06, 2.07, 2.08) point out that the supervisor is responsible for reviewing work samples of the supervisee, providing ongoing and regular feedback in a variety of forms and formats, and meeting regularly in face-to-face sessions with the supervisee. Outlining these requirements and responsibilities of both parties will prevent confusion and promote clear communication. The specific evaluation procedure and any forms are therefore described in this section. Also detailed here are the means for appeal and complaints should the supervisee find occasion for needing them.
20. 20 Counseling the Supervisee The Supervisor understands that:
Supervision is a complex task of educational, professional, ethical, informational, & therapeutic interactions.
The power differential interferes with the counseling relationship.
The supervisor can listen, empathize, & understand the CITs personal issues, but limits this activity because of the evaluative role he or she has with the CIT. Counseling the Supervisee: The supervisory process involves the promotion of the supervisees awareness of self and the personal issues that come into play when he or she is working with the client(s) (Teyber, 1997). The more contact the supervisee has with clients, the greater the likelihood that personal issues can be activated that can interfere with the counseling relationship (Jordan & Quinn, 1996). Supervision also activates personal issues that can hinder the supervisory and counseling process (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992). It is often the goal of supervision to help the supervisee see when and where their personal issues hinder the counseling and supervisory process. Supervisors are often times tempted to serve as counselors to the supervisees in the supervisees attempts to work through those issues that are hindering their development (Welfel, 1998) even though the ethical guidelines state that Supervisors should not establish a psychotherapeutic relationship as a substitute for supervision (ACES, 1995, Sec. 2.11).
The process of supervision is distinctly different from the process of counseling (Neufeldt & Nelson, 1999). Supervision is a complex combination of educational, professional, ethical, informational, and therapeutic interactions. The relationship built between the supervisee and supervisor is multifaceted and can include teaching, mentoring, consultation, and monitoring. Yet in the end, the supervisor has the distinct task of evaluation. This power can interfere and conflict with any counseling relationship that the supervisor wishes to create (Corey & Herlihy, 1996).
Counseling the Supervisee: The supervisory process involves the promotion of the supervisees awareness of self and the personal issues that come into play when he or she is working with the client(s) (Teyber, 1997). The more contact the supervisee has with clients, the greater the likelihood that personal issues can be activated that can interfere with the counseling relationship (Jordan & Quinn, 1996). Supervision also activates personal issues that can hinder the supervisory and counseling process (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992). It is often the goal of supervision to help the supervisee see when and where their personal issues hinder the counseling and supervisory process. Supervisors are often times tempted to serve as counselors to the supervisees in the supervisees attempts to work through those issues that are hindering their development (Welfel, 1998) even though the ethical guidelines state that Supervisors should not establish a psychotherapeutic relationship as a substitute for supervision (ACES, 1995, Sec. 2.11).
The process of supervision is distinctly different from the process of counseling (Neufeldt & Nelson, 1999). Supervision is a complex combination of educational, professional, ethical, informational, and therapeutic interactions. The relationship built between the supervisee and supervisor is multifaceted and can include teaching, mentoring, consultation, and monitoring. Yet in the end, the supervisor has the distinct task of evaluation. This power can interfere and conflict with any counseling relationship that the supervisor wishes to create (Corey & Herlihy, 1996).
21. 21 Counseling the Supervisee The Supervisor understands:
The difference between gatekeeper issues & transitory issues.
Gatekeeper issues are those that interfere with counseling performance in an ongoing fashion.
Transitory issues are those that interfere with the supervisees performance but are temporary in nature. Neufeldt and Nelson (1999) take this issue one step further. They delineate between gatekeeper issues and transitory issues and how to deal with each using counseling behaviors. Gatekeeper issues are those that interfere with counseling performance in an ongoing fashion. The supervisor should explore with the supervisee (using counseling behaviors) the cause of the ongoing problem, providing feedback and evaluation, and not counseling. A recommendation for psychotherapy may be made as a way to deal with the issues presented.
Transitory issues are those that interfere with the supervisees performance but are temporary in nature. The supervisee may only need a chance to process what is happening in their life at that time with the supervisor. In this way the supervisor is providing a safe place for the supervisee to vent while focusing on their improving their skills. Because is was a situational rather than a personality issue, and because the trainee saw the impact, it was not necessary to outline steps for remediation (Neufeldt & Nelson, 1999, p. 130).
Neufeldt and Nelson (1999) take this issue one step further. They delineate between gatekeeper issues and transitory issues and how to deal with each using counseling behaviors. Gatekeeper issues are those that interfere with counseling performance in an ongoing fashion. The supervisor should explore with the supervisee (using counseling behaviors) the cause of the ongoing problem, providing feedback and evaluation, and not counseling. A recommendation for psychotherapy may be made as a way to deal with the issues presented.
Transitory issues are those that interfere with the supervisees performance but are temporary in nature. The supervisee may only need a chance to process what is happening in their life at that time with the supervisor. In this way the supervisor is providing a safe place for the supervisee to vent while focusing on their improving their skills. Because is was a situational rather than a personality issue, and because the trainee saw the impact, it was not necessary to outline steps for remediation (Neufeldt & Nelson, 1999, p. 130).
22. 22 Electronic Supervision The Supervisor seeks to insure that:
All communication maintains a level of security that allows only those who should be viewing it, access to it.
Emergency procedures are in place if there is a crisis that requires the supervisors attention.
Timely care can take place for both the CIT & Client. Electronic/Web Based Supervision: Supervision of counselors has entered the electronic age. Supervisors who are located in larger cities can now supervise counselors, who may be employed in remote areas of the country or just across the city. Through the use of video-conferencing, e-mail, real-time chat rooms, electronic bulletin boards, and other electronic means, supervisees can be monitored and have their progressed measured (Myrick & Sabella, 1995). While this new age has brought counseling and supervision services into areas that may not have been served before, there are limitations and ethical issues to take into consideration.
While the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision ethics does not specifically deal with electronic supervision, indirectly there are broad principles that do apply. Issues such as:
Confidentiality & Privacy: Electronic mail (e-mail) and its mode of transportation (through the internet) need to maintain a level of security that allows only those who should be viewing it access to it. Encryption software continues to become more and more sophisticated with each passing day and can be incorporated into a computer for varying costs. Access to the hardware (the computer) needs to be monitored. Passwords may be used to maintain some level of security for e-mail and computer files.
Those sites that use chat-room technologies (having several members of a supervision group chat electronically through the internet) need to put procedures into place that only allow those persons into the chat room who actually belong there.
If video conferencing through the internet is used, the participants need to insure that all locations maintain confidentiality and provide a secure and private place for the meeting to take place. Having one side of conference in a secure location while the other is located in public view defeats the purposes of confidentiality.
Client Welfare & Rights: Clients may not know that the supervision their counselor is receiving is through electronic means, but they have a right to expect that the supervisor is able to respond to any crisis in a reasonable time frame. If your supervisee is across the country or county, arrangements need to be made for local emergency supervision when necessary. Electronic/Web Based Supervision: Supervision of counselors has entered the electronic age. Supervisors who are located in larger cities can now supervise counselors, who may be employed in remote areas of the country or just across the city. Through the use of video-conferencing, e-mail, real-time chat rooms, electronic bulletin boards, and other electronic means, supervisees can be monitored and have their progressed measured (Myrick & Sabella, 1995). While this new age has brought counseling and supervision services into areas that may not have been served before, there are limitations and ethical issues to take into consideration.
While the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision ethics does not specifically deal with electronic supervision, indirectly there are broad principles that do apply. Issues such as:
Confidentiality & Privacy: Electronic mail (e-mail) and its mode of transportation (through the internet) need to maintain a level of security that allows only those who should be viewing it access to it. Encryption software continues to become more and more sophisticated with each passing day and can be incorporated into a computer for varying costs. Access to the hardware (the computer) needs to be monitored. Passwords may be used to maintain some level of security for e-mail and computer files.
Those sites that use chat-room technologies (having several members of a supervision group chat electronically through the internet) need to put procedures into place that only allow those persons into the chat room who actually belong there.
If video conferencing through the internet is used, the participants need to insure that all locations maintain confidentiality and provide a secure and private place for the meeting to take place. Having one side of conference in a secure location while the other is located in public view defeats the purposes of confidentiality.
Client Welfare & Rights: Clients may not know that the supervision their counselor is receiving is through electronic means, but they have a right to expect that the supervisor is able to respond to any crisis in a reasonable time frame. If your supervisee is across the country or county, arrangements need to be made for local emergency supervision when necessary.
23. 23 Multicultural Issues The Supervisor shall:
Take into account the effect individual differences (gender, race, culture, etc) has on the supervisory relationship. This includes:
Appropriate training and experience in cultural differences.
Working with the CIT to understand how cultural differences effect counseling/supervision process.
Issues of power surrounding differences. Multicultural Issues: Multiculturalism, broadly defined, includes a broad range of differences that have an effect on our interactions with one another (Sue & Sue, 1999). A supervisor who does not take into account the effect individual differences (gender, race, culture, ethnicity, etc.) has on the supervisory process is not modeling good counseling behaviors to the supervisee and is practicing in an ethically unsound way (Corey et al., 1998; Leong & Wagner, 1994).
Over the years the counseling profession has sought ways to become more knowledgeable about individual differences and sensitive to and effective with the different cultures a counselor will come into contact through their clients (Sue & Sue, 1999). This work is also important to the supervisory process as well. Counselors as well as clients, come in different genders, from different cultures, have different ethnic traditions, and different sexual orientations (to name just a few differences). Supervisors who are aware of these differences and their affects on the interpersonal relationship between the supervisee and the client and the supervisor and the supervisee are operating ethically and competently (Bernard, 1994).
Good ethical practice as it relates to supervision and multicultural issues includes:
Training for the supervisor on issues surrounding the affects of cultural differences between the client and the counselor.
Training (didactic and experiential) for the supervisor on cultural issues influencing the supervisory process.
Working with the supervisee to understand the differences between cultures and eliminating the myth of sameness that all people are essentially the same (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992).
Training on issues surrounding power and gender differences as they relate to the counseling process as well as the supervision process.
Supervision of the supervisor in areas of culture and/or gender differences to enhance the supervisors own development in these areas (Corey et al., 1998). Multicultural Issues: Multiculturalism, broadly defined, includes a broad range of differences that have an effect on our interactions with one another (Sue & Sue, 1999). A supervisor who does not take into account the effect individual differences (gender, race, culture, ethnicity, etc.) has on the supervisory process is not modeling good counseling behaviors to the supervisee and is practicing in an ethically unsound way (Corey et al., 1998; Leong & Wagner, 1994).
Over the years the counseling profession has sought ways to become more knowledgeable about individual differences and sensitive to and effective with the different cultures a counselor will come into contact through their clients (Sue & Sue, 1999). This work is also important to the supervisory process as well. Counselors as well as clients, come in different genders, from different cultures, have different ethnic traditions, and different sexual orientations (to name just a few differences). Supervisors who are aware of these differences and their affects on the interpersonal relationship between the supervisee and the client and the supervisor and the supervisee are operating ethically and competently (Bernard, 1994).
Good ethical practice as it relates to supervision and multicultural issues includes:
Training for the supervisor on issues surrounding the affects of cultural differences between the client and the counselor.
Training (didactic and experiential) for the supervisor on cultural issues influencing the supervisory process.
Working with the supervisee to understand the differences between cultures and eliminating the myth of sameness that all people are essentially the same (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992).
Training on issues surrounding power and gender differences as they relate to the counseling process as well as the supervision process.
Supervision of the supervisor in areas of culture and/or gender differences to enhance the supervisors own development in these areas (Corey et al., 1998).
24. 24 Educational Opportunities The Supervisor seeks to:
Insure that the CIT is given the proper training concerning their roles and responsibilities within the training organization.
Provide the CIT with training and clients that are both commensurate with their skills and challenging to their growth. Differences in the Role and Function of Administrative & Clinical Supervision: Administrative supervision refers to those supervisory activities which increase the efficiency of the delivery of counseling services (ACES, 1995, p. 270). Research into this area of supervision is generally lacking. One might assume this is because it does not deal with counseling skills but with administrative duties such as record keeping, program evaluation, and program management. Yet ethical guidelines do apply when working with supervisees and making program decisions concerning client welfare and rights and the training of a counselor.
Educational Opportunities: Supervisors need to insure that their supervisees are given the proper training concerning their role and responsibilities within the training organization. This includes training on the paperwork required by the organization, job descriptions and responsibilities for their role as well as those with whom the supervisee is closely working, and emergency procedures and protocols. Administrative supervisors also need to work with clinical supervisors to insure that the supervisees are being provided experiences that integrate knowledge and practice.
This also means that the administrative supervisors need to insure that the supervisees are working with those clients that are not only commensurate with their skills but are challenging their growth. At the same time, it is clearly inappropriate for a supervisor to place a supervisee in a situation that is clearly beyond their training and experience just because personnel are needed in that location. For example, it would be ill advised to place a supervisee into an unsupervised group leadership role with chronically mentally ill clients because of a staff shortage if the supervisee had no background, training, or experience with the population. Differences in the Role and Function of Administrative & Clinical Supervision: Administrative supervision refers to those supervisory activities which increase the efficiency of the delivery of counseling services (ACES, 1995, p. 270). Research into this area of supervision is generally lacking. One might assume this is because it does not deal with counseling skills but with administrative duties such as record keeping, program evaluation, and program management. Yet ethical guidelines do apply when working with supervisees and making program decisions concerning client welfare and rights and the training of a counselor.
Educational Opportunities: Supervisors need to insure that their supervisees are given the proper training concerning their role and responsibilities within the training organization. This includes training on the paperwork required by the organization, job descriptions and responsibilities for their role as well as those with whom the supervisee is closely working, and emergency procedures and protocols. Administrative supervisors also need to work with clinical supervisors to insure that the supervisees are being provided experiences that integrate knowledge and practice.
This also means that the administrative supervisors need to insure that the supervisees are working with those clients that are not only commensurate with their skills but are challenging their growth. At the same time, it is clearly inappropriate for a supervisor to place a supervisee in a situation that is clearly beyond their training and experience just because personnel are needed in that location. For example, it would be ill advised to place a supervisee into an unsupervised group leadership role with chronically mentally ill clients because of a staff shortage if the supervisee had no background, training, or experience with the population.
25. 25 Summary The practice of supervision has grown more and more complex with each passing year. New and innovative ways of providing supervision have been created that include the use of computers and the World Wide Web (Myrick & Sabella, 1995). We have developed a greater depth of knowledge about the impact of multicultural issues on the supervisory process (Bernard, 1994; Leong & Wagner, 1994).
26. 26 Summary More and more sites are asking for or being required to have trained supervisors to teach counselors how to interrelate with clients. Clearer guidelines are being created so that the supervisee knows how and when they are being evaluated (McCarthy et al., 1995). As the profession matures, so do the ethics that guide it through the many complex relational issues that arise. In doing so the profession maintains a high quality of service to the supervisee, the client, and the agency it serves.
27. 27 Questions-Cases What are your thoughts?
Your cases for Discussion.
A Look at a Disclosure Statement.
