PSYCHOLOGY

1. PSYCHOLOGY

2. The nature of Psychology • Psychology originates from two Greek words: psyche, meaning soul or mind; and logos meaning study or knowledge. • What is the definition of psychology?

3. Psychologyis the scientific study of mental processes and behaviour in humans. • Mental processesgenerally refer to a person’s thoughts and feelings, which are personal, or subjective, and cannot be directly observed. • Behaviourrefers to any externally expressed action made by a living person that can be directly observed. • These processes are interrelated and constantly interact.

4. Research Methods

5. What do you know? • 1. What is the name given to the people involved in a research study? • 2. An_______________ conducts an experiment • 3. A _______________ is a testable predication about the relationship between two or more variables.

6. 4. A ___________ is a portion of a larger group that is chosen to be studied for the research purposes. • 5. The ___________ shows any affects of the IV. • 6. In the _________ group, the IV is absent. • 7. An ______________ variable is any other variable that may affect the results, other than the IV.

7. 8. Drawing names out of a hat to decide who is to be involved in a research study is an example of a ____________ sample. • 9. A _________ is a judgement about what the results of a study mean.

8. Answers • 1. Participants 9. Conclusion • 2. Experimenter • 3.Hypothesis • 4. Sample • 5. DV • 6. Control • 7. Extraneous • 8. Random

9. Research Methods: • What are research methods? • A research method is a particular way of conducting a research study to collect accurate and reliable information about behaviour and mental processes. • Psychologists use a range of research methods and data collection techniques based on the scientific method.

10. Experimental Research • One of the most scientifically rigorous research methods used in psychology, as in other sciences, is the experimental method. • An experiment is used to test a cause-effect relationship between variables under controlled conditions. • Four different types of variables can be identified in an experiment. These are independent variables, dependent variables, extraneous variables and confounding variables.

11. Variables: • A variable is any factor that varies in amount or kind over time. • In a controlled experiment, the experimenter sets up variables and attempts to systematically control them in order to observe and measure what happens under those experiments.

12. IV and DV Every experiment includes at least one independent and one dependent variable: Independent Variable: The variable that is systematically manipulated, changed or varied in some way, by the experimenter (in order to assess its effect on the participants response). • The way in which the IV will be manipulated is planned and determined before the experiment begins. • It is called the ‘independent variable’ because the experimenter can independently vary it in some way.

13. Dependent variable:shows any affects of the independent variable. That is, the aspect of the participants behaviour or experience that is observed or measured and expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable. • It is called the ‘dependent variable’ because whether or not it will change and the way in which it will change depends on the effects of the Independent variable.

14. In terms of cause-effect relationship, the Independent Dependent variable variable (CAUSE) (EFFECT)

15. EXAMPLE! I am conducting an experiment. My hypothesis is: That eating lollies before an exam will increase exam performance. Ask yourself: What is being measured (what will change over the course of the experiment)? Performance on the exam (mark/percentage etc.) (DV) Ask yourself: What is causing the change is students’ exam results? Consuming lollies before an exam vs not consuming lollies. (IV)

16. Experimental condition and control condition • In a simple experiment, the participants selected are allocated to one of two groups. • The experimental group is the condition in which the independent variable is present. • The control group is the condition in which the independent variable is absent. • The control group provides a standard against which the performance of the experimental group can be compared in order to determine whether the IV has caused some change in the behaviour or event being measured.

17. Experiments: How to conduct a study. • 1. Clearly state the topic to be investigated. • 2. Define key terms and how they will be measured. • 3. Formulate a hypothesis.

18. Hypothesis: What is a hypothesis? • Educated guess about the relationship between two or more events. • Testable • Involves directional prediction (eg. More or less likely) • States the causal relationship between IV and DV. • REMEMBER: Your Hypothesis should always start with “That...” or “It can be hypothesised that…” It’s a statement about what you think will happen!

19. Example • I have developed a new theory. I think that the brighter colours I wear, the happier my year 12 students will be. • I want to develop a hypothesis on the experiment that is going to be conducted testing this theory. That is, a testable prediction about what the results might show.

20. HOW??? • What do I expect to happen? Students happiness rating to increase. • What's going to cause students happiness ratings to change? Colour of Miss Bowles' clothing (being either dark or light) Dependent Variable Lets put it all together: That students happiness level will increase when Miss Bowles is wearing brighter clothing. Independent Variable

21. We need to know a little more detail… • Now that you are experts on writing hypothesis’, try adding in a few more details to write a research hypothesis.

22. Research Hypothesis • The research hypothesisstates the causal relationship between the IV and the DV to be tested; that is that the IV will cause the DV to change in a particular way. • It also shows how the variables to be tested are defined and stated in terms of how they will be observed, manipulated and measured. • Eg. Exercise (IV)- walking at a speed of 5km an hour for 15 minutes. Depression (DV)- number of negative words written in a creative story

23. So…. • Instead of simply writing- That exercise will decrease the risk of developing depression- we write… • That walking for 15 minutes a day at a pace of 5km an hour will decrease the risk of developing depression as measured by the number of negative words written in a creative story.

24. Operational Hypothesis: An operational hypothesis gives us one more bit of info. It tells: - how the variables will be observed, manipulated and measured AND -what the population is from which my sample has been selected?

25. So tell me… How have the variables been observed, manipulated and measured? • Exercise (IV)- walking at a speed of 5km an hour for 15 minutes. • Depression (DV)- number of negative words written in a creative story What is the population from which my sample has been selected? • All students at Rosehill secondary college (population) • Miss Bowles’ year 12 Psych class (sample)

26. Lets put it together: • Experimental hypothesis:That walking decreases the risk of developing depression. • Research hypothesis: + walking at a pace of 5km an hour for 15 minutes everyday + number of negative words written in a creative story (how its being measured) OPERATIONAL HYPOTHESIS: + All students at Rosehill Secondary college (population) +Miss Bowles’ year 12 psych class (sample) = ????????????????????????????????

27. Lets put all together: • Operational Hypothesis:That students from Miss Bowles’ psychology class at Rosehill Secondary College will show that depression levels will decrease, measured by the number of negative words written in a creative story, as a result of walking for 15 minutes everyday at a pace of 5km an hour.

28. YOU as avid and enthusiastic psychology students have a theory that yelling out in class seems to increase your teachers annoyance. You are going to conduct an experiment on your theory and need to come up with an operational hypothesis..

29. Remember • Educated guess • Starts with ‘That..’ • Enables us to tell what the IV and DV are • How have the results been measured? • What is the population from which the sample has been drawn?

30. Writing a research and operational hypothesis • Write an experimental hypothesis. • Identify the variables in the experimental hypothesis (IV and DV). • Describe how each variable will be measured in the study. • Replace the variables in step 2 with the variables in step 3 to form your research hypothesis. • Add population and sample for operational hypothesis.

31. Extraneous Variables There are many variables other than the IV that might influence the DV in an experiment. Experimenters try to predict what these might be prior to an experiment and develop their research design to control, or minimise, the influence of as many of these unwanted or extraneous variables as possible. An Extraneous Variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV in an experiment. When extraneous variables are present in an experiment, it is difficult to conclude with confidence that changes in the DV have occurred as a result of the IV and not some other variable. They are usually identified at the beginning of the experiment so that they can then be controlled.

32. Confounding variables • A confounding variable is a variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the change in the DV. • The difference between a CV and an EV is that a CV causes a measurable change in the DV, whereas an EV may or may not effect the DV.

33. Identifying extraneous and potential confounding variables • Individual participant differences • Demand characteristics • Placebo effect • Experimenter effects • Order effects • Artificiality • Use of non-standardised instructions and procedures

34. Individual differences • The differences in personal characteristics and experiences of the individual participants in an experiment are commonly referred to as individual participant differences. • Eg. Age, sex, intelligence, personality, memory ability, education, ethnicity, motivation, mood, self-esteem etc. • These variables can effect a participants performance in an experiment. • The researcher will try to control these before they begin the experiment.

35. Demand characteristics • A demand characteristicis a cue expressed by the researcher or present in some aspect of the research study that communicates the kind of response that is expected from participants and leads them to believe that the research study requires, or ‘demands’, that they respond in a particular way. • Demand characteristics guide or bias a participant’s behaviour in some way. • Responses are usually unconscious. • One reason that participants willingly do things in a study is because of social desirability; that is because of their desire to provide socially acceptable responses. They try to be ‘good’ so as not to ‘upset’ the experimenter.

36. Placebo effect • The placebo effectoccurs when there is a change in the responses of participants due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment and they respond in accordance with that belief. • For example driving ability and alcohol consumption- acting like you are drunk to please the experimenter (also a demand characteristic), feeling like your driving should be impaired because you have consumed some alcohol.

37. Experimenter effects • Often the experimenters expectations and actions can unintentionally effect the participants responses. • An experimenter effectoccurs when there is a change in a participant’s response due to the researcher’s expectations, biases or actions, rather than the effect of the IV. • Experimenter expectancy involves cues the researcher provides about the responses participants should give in the experiment. • A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when the researcher obtains results that they expect to obtain due to cues they provide rather than the IV (eg. Facial expressions (smiling), tone of voice, mannerisms).

38. Experimenter bias involves unintentional biases in the collection and treatment of data. Eg, misread data, give unintentional assistance to participants, or misinterpret a participants verbal response.

39. Order effects • In some experiments participants are exposed to more than one treatment condition and they may be required to perform the same task more than once. • An order effectoccurs when performance, as measured by the DV, is influenced by the specific order in which the conditions, treatments or tasks are presented. Performing one task affects the performance of the next task. • Practice effects are the influence on performance (the DV) that arises from practising a task. • Carry-over effects are the influence that a particular treatment or task has on performance in a subsequent treatment or task that follows it.

40. Artificiality • Psychologists often conduct experiments in laboratory settings, so that the environment and procedures can be controlled and responses can be recorded. • However the laboratory is an artificial setting. • Artificialityrefers to the effects that laboratory based research can have in terms of its lack of realism and differences to real-life settings.

41. Use of non-standardised instructions and procedures • The instructions and procedures used by the researcher can also impact on how participants respond, and therefore the results. • When the research procedures are non-standardisedthis means that they are not uniform or the same for all participants. • Even small variations in procedures may affect participants’ responses, for example time of day or the instructions given to participants.

42. Read the following scenarios and identify the extraneous variable that has not been accounted for from the options below. Justify your answer.- Order effect- Placebo effect- Experimenter effect- Individual participant differences- Artificiality- Demand characteristics- Non- standardised instructions and procedures • Scenario 1 • Maddi was conducting research investigating the effect of music on study. She gave her participants a list of names starting with ‘A’ and asked them to learn it in silence. After one minute they wrote down all the names they could recall. She then handed the same group of participants another list of names starting with ‘A’ and she played music while they were learning the names. After one minute they wrote down all the names they could recall.

43. Read the following scenarios and identify the extraneous variable that has not been accounted for from the options below. Justify your answer.- Order effect- Placebo effect- Experimenter effect- Individual participant differences- Artificiality- Demand characteristics- Non- standardised instructions and procedures • Scenario 2 • A teacher decides to give students in half of his class a new ‘super drug’ he has discovered, which is intended to improve their intelligence. The students in the other half of the class are told they will receive no drug and will have to compete academically with the rest of the class as best they can.

44. Read the following scenarios and identify the extraneous variable that has not been accounted for from the options below. Justify your answer.- Order effect- Placebo effect- Experimenter effect- Individual participant differences- Artificiality- Demand characteristics- Non- standardised instructions and procedures • Scenario 3 • Highvale Basketball Club is trying to test the effectiveness of a new training program on shooting accuracy. They put their 10 tallest players through the training program then asked them to shoot 100 balls from the 3-point line. Their 10 shortest players did not complete the training program but also shot 100 balls from the 3-point line. The shooting accuracy of both groups was then compared.

45. Read the following scenarios and identify the extraneous variable that has not been accounted for from the options below. Justify your answer. - Order effect- Placebo effect- Experimenter effect- Individual participant difference- Artificiality- Demand characteristics- Non- standardised instructions and procedures • Scenario 4 • Peter is a university graduate researching whether caffeine can improve driving ability. He is hoping that this is the case so that he can write a thesis on it. Group A ingests caffeine before taking a simulated driving test, and group B does not ingest any caffeine before taking a simulated driving test. As members of group A are conducting their driving test, Peter actively encourages them. When members of group B conduct their test, Peter stands over them and points out their errors.

46. Ways of minimising extraneous and confounding variables

47. Minimising individual participant differences- Participant selection • Participant selection – the way participants are selected for a research study and how they are allocated to the groups in the study are important features of doing experimental research. • The process of selecting participants for a research study is called sampling. • A sampleis a group that is a subset or portion of a larger group chosen to be studied for research purposes.

48. The term populationis used in psychological research to describe the larger group from which a sample is drawn. • The sample should mirror or be representative of the entire population of interest. • In psychology the population does not refer to all the people in a particular country or to the whole human race. It refers to a particular group who has one or more characteristics in common eg. All VCE students, all females with schizophrenia etc. • Researchers draw a sample from a population appropriate for their hypothesis and attempt to generalise or apply the results obtained for the sample to the population from which the sample is drawn.

49. Convenience sampling • Random sampling • Stratified sampling • Stratified- random sampling

50. Convenience sampling • Convenience samplingor opportunity sampling involves selecting participants who are readily available without any attempt to make the sample representative of the population. • In most cases, convenience sampling produces a biased sample because only those people available at the time and location of the study will have a chance at being included in the sample. • This means that the data obtained can, at times, be misleading and the results cannot be legitimately generalised to the population.