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Understanding Computer Fundamentals and FORTRAN Programming for Engineers

This chapter delves into the basics of computer systems, focusing on critical components such as the CPU, memory, and input/output devices, as well as the binary, octal, and hexadecimal number systems. It also covers fundamental concepts of data types, the history and evolution of FORTRAN programming, and its relevance in solving engineering problems. The chapter explains how computers, though not intelligent, execute commands through software. It emphasizes the importance of programming in computer functionality while providing examples from everyday life and exploring data representation.

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Understanding Computer Fundamentals and FORTRAN Programming for Engineers

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  1. ENGR2216FORTRAN PROGRAMMINGFOR ENGINEERS

  2. Chapter 1 • The computer • CPU • MEMORY • INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES • DATA REPRESENTATION • BINARY SYSTEM • OCTAL & HEXADECIMAL • DATA TYPES • HISTORY OF FORTRAN • EVOLUTION OF FORTRAN

  3. Computers: are they important? • Solving problems in any field • Can you imagine a computer without software (programmes)? • Computer’s success is tied to programming

  4. Where do we find computers? • In a grocery store: scanners checking prices • ATM (Automatic Teller Machines) • Mobiles • Microwave oven • Cars • Do you believe that the first electronic computer was invented about 60 years ago?

  5. Basic Definitions • A computer: • is a special type of machine that stores information and can perform mathematical calculations on that information at speeds much faster than human beings can think. • A program: • tells the computer what sequence of calculations are required and on which information to perform the calculations.

  6. Examples of Programmes • A computer at the bank stores customers’ information. • Another programme can check each customer’s account daily. Once it goes below 100 Rials, the customer gets charged 1 Rial. • Another programme can monitor the customers’ account, and send an sms message to the customers informing them that it’s time to take out their Zakat. • Another program: • when your phone’s battery becomes low, it gives you a warning: ”low battery”.

  7. Computers vs. Human • Are computers smarter than human? • No, they only process programmes faster. • They follow the instructions given in a programme. • They can’t think on their own. • They must be told what to do and when to do it • A clever programme means a clever programmer

  8. The computer • CPU = computer’s heart • CPU = Control + ALU + memory • Control: controls all PC parts • ALU: performs calculations • Memory: temporary storage of results during calculations • Control: • Interpret instructions • Fetch data from input • Send data from memory to output devices or main memory • E.g. multiply 2 × 3

  9. The computer • Main memory • (e.g. RAM) • Primary • Volatile • Semiconductor chip • Very fast • Fetch time  60 ns • Expensive • Store currently used programme • Secondary memory • (e.g. HDD) • Non-volatile … explain! • Higher capacity (80GB vs. 1GB) • Slower • Cheaper

  10. The computer • Input devices • Purpose: enter data/information • Examples: • Keyboard • Mouse • Scanner • Camera • microphone • Output devices • Purpose: display results • Examples: • Monitors/ LCDs • Printers • Plotters • speakers

  11. The binary number system (725)10 = 7× 102 + 2 × 101 + 5 × 100 Used by human (101)2 = 1× 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 Used by computers Examples: Find the following: (111)2 = (……)10 (011)2 = (……)10 (00001110)2 = (……)10 Byte = 8 bits How many possible values can we make with a 3-bit binary number? Hint: (000) to (111) HOW TO CONVERT FROM BASE 10 TO BASE 2? The 2n rule.

  12. Data representation in a computer • What is a computer memory composed of ? • Millions of ON/OFF switches • How does a PC store data in memory? • A switch is either ON (1) or OFF (0) • A single switch can represent only 1 or 0. • What does bit mean? • BIT stands for Binary Digit • A bit is either 1 or 0. • 1 Byte = 8 bits representing a binary number • E.g. memory of 256 MB (megabytes) = 256 million bytes • E.g. hard disk drive with storage of 40 gigabytes = 40 billion bytes • 1 word = 2, 4, (or more) consecutive bytes = 32, 64, bits • How many possible values can we make with 1 byte? • 28 = 256 possible values (-128 to 127)

  13. Binary (2), Octal (8) and Hexadecimal (16)

  14. Types of Data stored in memory • Each type needs a different amount of memory • Character Data: • UPPER CASE LETTERS (A-Z) = 26 • Lower case letters (a – z) = 26 • Digits (0 – 9) = 10 • Symbols: “ , ( ) [ ] ! ~ @ # $ % ^ & * . • Special letters or symbols (e.g. é) • Total number < 256  1 byte per character • 1,000 characters need 1,000 bytes • For non-English languages, more characters are used) • Task: read text book for • ASCII coding and EBCDIC coding • Integer Data • Real Data (floating point)

  15. Types of Data stored in memory • Each type needs a different amount of memory • Character Data • Integer Data: • -ve integers, +ve integers, and zero • Needs 1, 2, 4, or 8 bytes (differs from one computer type to another) • In any computer that uses n-bit integer: • Smallest integer = -2n-1 • Largest integer = 2n-1 – 1 (why -1?) • What happens if a larger number is used? • Task: read text book • Error: Overflow condition • Real Data (floating point)

  16. Types of Data stored in memory • Each type needs a different amount of memory • Character Data • Integer Data • Real Data (floating point): • Used for fractional numbers (e.g. 0.25) • Used for very large or very small integers • Value = mantissa × 2exponent • E.g. speed of light in decimal system = 2.998 × 108 m/s • Computers use base 2 system, with 32 bits (4 bytes) of computer memory: • 24 bits for mantissa • 8 bits for exponent • Task: read text book • Precision • Range • Round-off error

  17. Computer Languages • Machine language • A program is a list of operations to be executed by a computer: • E.g. load, store, add, subtract, etc. • Each operation has a binary pattern (e.g. add = 1011) called op code • The data associated with the op code are called operands • A set of op codes is called machine language • E.g. add 3,4 1011 0011 0100 • store A 0101 0000 1010 • Machine language is very hard for human • High level languages: • Easy to write/understand • List of instructions • Convert to machine language using compilers and linkers • Examples of high level programming languages: • Basic • C++ • COBOL • Fortran • Java

  18. FORTRAN Language • Grandfather of all scientific computer languages • FORmula TRANslation • Translate formula into a computer code • First FORTRAN: 1954 – 1957 By IBM for 704 computers

  19. FORTRAN Language • Grandfather of all scientific computer languages • FORmula TRANslation • Translate formula into a computer code • First FORTRAN: 1954 By IBM for 704 computers • Integers and real data types only • No subroutines • FORTRAN II: 1958 • FORTRAN IV: 1962 (stayed for 15 Years) • FORTRAN IV: 1966 (adopted as ANSI standard, and called FORTRAN 66 • FORTRAN 77: 1977 (introduced IF statements, and simplified using characters) • Fortran 90: 1992 • Fortran 95: 1996 • Text book covers both 90/95 • Task: • Read sections 1.4, and 1.5 of the text book

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