بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

1. بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم

2. By Mohamed Ibrahim Prof. of anesthesia ,intensive care and pain management Ain shams university Anesthesia for pediatric cardiac catheterization

4. Modern pediatric cardiac catheterization began with in 1947 when Bing described using catheterization for diagnosis of congenital heart disease.

5. Diagnostic catheterizations. • Interventional catheterizations Pediatric interventional catheterization began in earnest in 1968 with balloon atrial septostomy and quickly became a common procedure in pediatric catheterization.  

6.  Modern pediatric cardiac catheterization can now treat a number of conditions including: patent ductusarteriosus, atrialseptal defects, ventricular septal defects, collateral vessels, valve stenosis, vessel stenosis, and conduction abnormalities.

7.  Increasing minimally-invasive procedures has strained the traditional model of anesthesia-directed care in the operating room environment with a variety of providers now administering analgesia and sedation for children. Sedation has traditionally been under the direction of the performing cardiologist. 

8.  the need to have the patient be motionless has increased as the number of interventions has increased. • In addition, there is increased recognition that dedicated personnel focused on monitoring of the patient during sedation are associated with improved safety. • wide variations exist in approaches to sedation regimens. •  The different types of practitioners as well as the special circumstances that accompany congenital heart disease require special emphasis.

9. Composition of sedation team • A striking variety of practice models exist in pediatric catheterization suites: • pediatric cardiologists, • registered nurses, • Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist's (CRNA), anesthesiologists, • hospitalists, • pediatric emergency physicians, and • pediatric intensivists

10. Regardless of the team composition, consistency in NPO guidelines, monitoring, and ability for resuscitation must be kept. 

11. Preprocedueral preparation • careful evaluation for underlying medical or surgical conditions • appropriate fasting for elective procedures • a balance between depth of sedation and risk for those who are unable to fast because of the urgent nature of the procedure; • a focused airway examination for • a clear understanding of the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of the medications used for sedation, • as well as an appreciation for drug interactions; • appropriate training and skills in airway management to allow rescue of the patient;

12. Preprocedueral preparation • age- and size-appropriate equipment for airway management and venous access; • appropriate medications and reversal agents; • sufficient numbers of people; • appropriate physiologic monitoring during and after the procedure; • a properly equipped and staffed recovery area; • recovery to presedation level of consciousness before discharge from medical supervision; • and appropriate discharge instructions

13. Goals of anesthesia for catheterization: 1.Analgesia, anxiolysis, and amnesia for patient 2.Easy separation from parents at start of case 3.Maintain airway and appropriate ventilation 4.Monitor and maintain appropriate acid-base status 5.Minimize cardiovascular stress on the patient 6.Optimize hemodynamic status before, during, and after the procedure,

14. 7.Immobilization for precision, particularly when interventions are needed 8.Smooth transition to awake state after procedure, minimizing cardiovascular stress upon awakening (avoiding/minimizing agitation, hypertension, coughing fits, tachycardia, etc) 9.Provide appropriate conditions for obtaining useful cath data (i.e. testing with nitric oxide, valsalva, spontaneous breathing vs positive pressure ventilation, etc)

15. Pre-procedural considerations • Prior to sedation, adequate consideration of a patient's physiologic status must be undertaken. Important features include underlying physiology, comorbidities and procedure to be performed. Some cooperative patients (older children and adults with congenital heart disease) may be able to have anxiolysis or light sedation and achieve excellent outcomes. Younger children will however require deep sedation (minimal response to painful stimuli) at least initially

16. Congenital heart disease • Understanding of the specific lesion and how hypotension, hypo or hypercarbia, and supplemental oxygen alter the patient's hemodynamics is critical. • Volume status changes and afterload alterations can severely alter the physiology of both cyanotic and acyanotic lesions. • Included in the preoperative checklist is a review of the latest echocardiogram, hospital history, and previous surgical procedures.

17. Interventional catheterization • require special consideration. • minimal spontaneous movement. • Many interventions are more painful (e.g. aortic angioplasty) than a diagnostic catheterization; requiring substantially more attention to analgesic needs. • In addition, closure devices for atrialseptal defects and ventricular septal defects alter the hemodynamics of the patient. Relatively high complication rates are associated with closure devices that alter sedation management.  • As with all deep sedations, expertise in airway management and intubation is a must.

20. Radiofrequency ablation • Many of these children have congenital heart disease, in addition to managing the arrhythmia-induced cardiovascular changes that are prerequisite with these patients. • These patients also have longer procedure times than other candidates for procedural sedation. Joung et al found that their procedure times for atrial tachycardias averaged 131.0±48.8 minutes. However, they also found that the procedure time was reduced when the patient received sedation rather than general anesthesia.1

22. Goals of catheterization • in a diagnostic catheterization to determine the degree of reversible pulmonary vascular disease, multiple variables would need to be considered. Hypo- or hyperventilation, supplemental oxygen, and acid-base status need to be manipulated. • Therapeutic agents that alter vascular tone will ultimately alter the interpretation of the study.

23. ? Anesthesia Sedation Analgesia

24. Indications for Anesthesia: • Inability to provide adequate analgesia due to intensity or nature of pain during procedure • May be used in conjunction with sedation and/or analgesia

25. Sedation

26. Sedation • Usually done at level of conscious sedation • Protective airway reflexes are preserved • Maintains own airway • Appropriate response to verbal command or stimulation

27. Sedation • Rarely done at level of deep sedation • Protective airway reflexes may be compromised • May require assistance maintaining airway • No purposeful response to verbal command or painful stimulus

28. Indications for sedation • Need to facilitate cooperation • Need for a complicated or extended procedure • Desire for amnesia • Relief of muscle spasm

29. Sedatives The ideal sedative agent does not exist. • Chloral hydrate • Oral or rectal administration • 30-45 minutes before onset of action • Long period of sedation, length variable

30. . • Pethedine and phenergan • Midazolam • Ketamine • Propofol • Propofol and ketamine • Dexmedetomidine • Analgesics

36. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 2005 Apr;17(2):122-3. Lactic acidosis following short-term propofol infusion may be an early warning of propofol infusion syndrome. Haase R, Sauer H, Eichler G.

42. Analgesics

43. In general, pain is under-treated in children.

44. Analgesics • Control of pain is an essential component to a well-performed sedation. • The provision of sedative agents does not provide for pain relief. Some agents (e.g. propofol) have hypergesic properties. This must be tempered with the realization that the addition of opioid agents may act synergistically other sedative agents. • Topical agents such as EMLA and subcutaneous local anesthetics can dramatically decrease the need for systemic agents.

45. Analgesics • Non-narcotic • Acetaminophen PO, PR • Ibuprofen PO • Ketoralac PO, IM, IV • No difference demonstrated in effectiveness between ibuprofen and ketoralac

46. Analgesics • Narcotics • Morphine IM, IV • pethidine IM, IV • Fentanyl IV, PO • Codeine and analogs PO • Morphine and pethidine may cause nausea, vomiting, and histamine release

47. Analgesics • Nitrous oxide • Rapid onset and offset of analgesia • Requires special equipment for administration • Requires cooperative patient

48. Special considerations Supplemental oxygen can dramatically alter cardiac output, as well as alter the interpretation of catheterization data. Alterations in ventilation with positive pressure, hypo- or hyperventilation may alter pulmonary blood flow, again leading to data that may be difficult to interpret

49. Consideration must be taken into the length of the procedure. • Recent reports highlight the potential deleterious effects of sedatives such as ketamine, propofol, and midazolam on the developing brain. • As the length of the procedure increases, attention to metabolic substrates (i.e. glucose), environmental stresses and temperature regulation must be addressed. 

50. Post-sedation care Is a continuation of the procedure. Qualified personnel, trained in resuscitation from deep sedation and general anesthesia, as well as knowledgeable of congenital heart defects, should monitor these patients until ready for ultimate disposition.