Lecture 2

1. Lecture 2 THE BRAIN OF THE COMPUTER Introduction to Microprocessors

2. Mechanical Computing • The abacus circa 500 B.C. – the first calculator • Blaise Pascal – the first modern mechanical adder • Charles Babbage – the first true computer • Herman Hollerith – the punched card system and founder of IBM

3. Early electronic computers • Konrad Zuse – Z3 (relay logic at 5.33 Hz) • Alan Turing – Colossus • University of Pennsylvania - ENIAC

4. Early milestones • 1948 – the transistor at Bell Labs • 1958 – the integrated circuit • 1961 – RTL digital logic • 1971 – the microprocessor (4004)

5. MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY • The Intel 4004 (Nov 1971) • was originally designed for use in a Busicom scientific calculator, but Intel engineers realized the design of the chip afforded multi-purpose use - thus the microprocessor was born. • The 4004 contains 2000 TRANSISTORS and is a 4-bit microprocessor capable of processing 4 bits of information at a time at a rate of about 0.06 MHz. • 45 instruction set • 50 kilo instructions per second The original 4004 was a silicon-based chip measuring 1/8th of an inch long by 1/16th of an inch wide, containing It had about the same amount of computing power as the original ENIAC which weighed 30 tons, occupied 3,000 cubic feet of space and used 18,000 vacuum tubes. being used on the Pioneer 10 spacecraft launched in 1972

6. MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY The Intel 4004 Micron View Microns is the width, in microns, of the smallest wire on the chip. For comparison, a human hair is 100 microns thick. As the feature size on the chip goes down, the number of transistors rises.

7. MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY The Intel 8080 (April 1974) 16 bit address bus and an 8 bit data bus Internally it had seven 8 bit registers The 8080 was used in the Altair 8800, the first widely-known personal computer MC6800 BY MOTOROLA CORPORATION RELEASED 6 MONTH AFTER INTEL 8080 SOON, Other companies began to introduce their own version of 8-bit microprocessors Manufacturer Part No. Intel 8080 MOS Technology 6502 Motorola MC6800 National Semiconductor IMP-8 Rockwell pps-8 Zilog Z-8

8. The Zilog Z-80 - End of an 8-bit line (July 1976) designed by ex-Intel engineers The Z-80 was intended to be an improved 8080 included 80 more, instructions than 8080 The register set was doubled Clock speeds ranged from the original Z-80 2.5MHz to the Z80-H (later called Z80-C) at 8MHz, and later a CMOS version at 10MHz. Of theses early microprocessors only Intel and Motorola continue successfully to create newer and improved version of microprocessors

9. MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY The modern microprocessors 16 bit microprocessors "Because of the success of Zilog's 8-bit processor, we were sure they were cooking up some super processors for 16 bits and beyond," says Peter Stohl, 8086 lead engineer. "We knew we had to beat them to the punch. We were scared and moving fast." 8086 (1978) 16 bit microprocessors Executed instructions in as little as 400ns(2.5 MIPS) 1 MB of memory (16 times more than that of 8085) Also called CISC(complex instructionset computers) because of No and complexity of instructions 4-6 byte instruction cache

10. MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY

11. MICROPROCESSORS HISTORY Microprocessors used in super computers THE IBM POWER3 MICROPROCESSOR WITH 15 MILLION TRANSISTORS AND THE ABILITY TO PERFORM UP TO TWO BILLION OPERATIONS PER SECOND  POWERS THE RS/6000 SP SUPERCOMPUTER The entire system will have 2,048 processors The system will have a peak performance capability of more than 3 teraflops, or 3 trillion calculations per second.

12. MICROPROCESSORS WORKING and ARCHITECTURE • Microprocessors perform three main tasks for the computer systems • Data transfer between itself and the memory or I/O systems • Simple arithmetic and logic operations • Program flow via simple decisions The term microprocessor typically refers to the central processing unit (CPU) • The microprocessor contains • the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) • 2. the control unit for a microcomputer.

13. MICROPROCESSORS WORKING and ARCHITECTURE Control Unit of Microprocessor The control unit of a microprocessor directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals. The descriptive words "fetch" and "execute" are used to describe the actions of the control unit. It fetches an instruction by sending and address and a read command to the memory unit. The instruction at that memory address is transferred to the control unit for decoding. It then generates the necessary signals to execute the instruction. Microprocessor is connected to memory and I/O by buses which carry information between the units.

14. MICROPROCESSORS WORKING and ARCHITECTURE Arithmetic Logic Unit All the arithmetic operations of a microprocessor take place in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The operation to be performed is specified by signals from the control unit. The data upon which operations are performed can come from memory or an external input.

16. Early programming • Countess of Lovelace (1823) wrote programs for the Analytical Engine • Machine Language then Assembly Language • Grace Hopper (1957) develops FLOW-MATIC • FORTRAN, ALGOL, and RPG • COBOL

17. Modern programming • Visual BASIC (most common business) • Visual C/C++ (most common technical) • JAVA (most common web) • ADA and PASCAL • C# (gaining on web)

18. Cache Memory • A temporary high speed memory that buffers the slower DRAM from the higher speed microprocessor. • Usages in bursts of 4 memory-sized chunks of data (today 4, 64-bit numbers) • Level 1 (small cache for local high-speed storage) • Level 2 (larger cache for local high-speed storage. • Level 3 (large cache on Pentium 4 chip)

19. Memory Organization • Memory is organized in byte-sized (wide) chunks of data • Memory is numbered in bytes • Memory is number in hexadecimal addresses or locations • Modern memory is 64-bits wide containing 8 bytes per memory physical location. • Modern DRAM is SLOW! (40 ns per a random access) • Buffering and double clock edge transfers can speed memory access times to about 25 MHz

20. Microprocessor Internals

21. Computer Block Diagram

22. Computer System Functions • CPU (microprocessor) – performs • arithmetic and logic operations • data transfers (to memory or i/o) • program flow via simple decisions • Memory – stores program and data • I/O – communicates to humans and machines

23. I/O Space • Port 0000H to ffffH (64K 8-bit i/o devices) • Two major sections • System devices (motherboard, etc) • Reserved for expansion • Various I/O devices that control the system are not directly addressed. System BIOS Rom addresses these devices. • Access made through OS or BIOS function calls to maintain compatibility from one computer system to another

24. DOS Memory System Transient program area

25. Windows Memory Map

26. DOS vs. Windows Memory • 1M memory system for DOS • 4G memory system for Windows • DOS is a 16-bit system • Windows is a 32-bit system • DOS TPA is 640K bytes • Windows TPA is 2G bytes (or with a modification to the registry, 3G bytes)

27. Computer Structure

28. Buses • Address Bus – selects a location in the memory or a specific I/O device • Data Bus – transfers data between the microprocessor and the memory or I/O • Control Bus – selects I/O or memory and causes a read or a write

29. Memory Organization • 8086/8088 – 8- or 16-bits in width • 80286 – 16-bits in width • 80386/80486 – 32-bits in width • Pentium/Pentium 4 – 64-bits in width

30. 8-bit Data

31. 8-bit Data Formats • In the assembler use: DATA1 DB 10H • In C++ char Data1 = 0x10; or unsigned char Data2 = 3;

32. 16-bit Data

33. 16-bit Data Formats • In the assembler Data3 DW 1000H • In C++ short Data3 = 0x1000; or unsigned short Data5 = 4;

34. 32-bit Data

35. 32-bit Data Formats • In the assembler DATA6 DD 10002345H • In C++ int Data6 = 0x10002345; or unsigned int Data7 = 34566; or UINT Data8 = 344;

36. Floating-point Data

37. Floating-Point Formats • In the assembler DATAA DD 23.4 DATAB DQ -345.0 DATAR DQ 3.5E2 • In C++ float DataC = 23.4; double DataD = -345; double DataE = 3.5e2;