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The A1, in all its glory

The A1, in all its glory. Programming Fundamentals 6 Feliks Klu ź niak. Executive summary : We learn most of the remaining instruction of the A1. We look at some simple examples. We also find out how a program gets into the machine.

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The A1, in all its glory

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  1. The A1, in all its glory Programming Fundamentals 6 Feliks Kluźniak The A1

  2. Executive summary: • We learn most of the remaining instruction of the A1. • We look at some simple examples. • We also find out how a program gets into the machine. The A1

  3. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F The A1

  4. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F The A1

  5. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F The A1

  6. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 5 6 7 bit_and 0 1 8 0 0 0 9 1 0 1 A B C D E F The A1

  7. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 5 6 7 bit_and 0 1 8 0 0 0 9 1 0 1 A B Typical use: masking out certain bits. C For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and D MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, E then the following will put the operand of that instruction F intoA:LOA INS AND MASK

  8. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK NOTE: INS and MASK are just some names, we could have chosen ABC and ZYX as well. The A1

  9. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 opcode operand The A1

  10. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 opcode operand BTW, what instruction is this?

  11. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 opcode operand BTW, what instruction is this? STO #64

  12. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 opcode operand The A1

  13. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 Now, 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 is the word at MASK. The A1

  14. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 Now, 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 is the word at MASK. So 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 will be in the accumulator after the instruction assembled from AND MASK is executed: we get a 1 at some position only if both operands contain a 1 at that position.

  15. bit_and 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 For example, if INS is the address of an instruction, and MASKis the address of of a word containing #0FFFF, then the following will put the operand of that instruction intoA:LOA INS AND MASK After the instruction assembled from LOA INS is executed, the accumulator will contain the bit pattern for the instruction at INS, e.g., 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 Now, 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 is the word at MASK. So 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 will be in the accumulator after the instruction assembled from AND MASK is executed: we get a 1 at some position only if both operands contain a 1 at that position. The accumulator will contain #64.

  16. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 6 7 bit_or 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 1 1 1 A B C D E F The A1

  17. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 6 7 bit_or 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 1 1 1 A B Typical use: constructing a word out of smaller pieces. C For example, if INSis the address of LOA 0, and ADRN is the D address of a word containing some integer N, then the E following will fill A with the bit pattern for LOA N: F LOA INS OR ADRN The A1

  18. bit_or 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 Typical use: constructing a word out of smaller pieces. For example, if INSis the address of LOA 0, and ADRN is the address of a word containing some integer N, then the following will fill A with the bit pattern for LOA N : LOA INS OR ADRN 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 The A1

  19. bit_or 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 Typical use: constructing a word out of smaller pieces. For example, if INSis the address of LOA 0, and ADRN is the address of a word containing some integer N, then the following will fill A with the bit pattern for LOA N : LOA INS OR ADRN 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 The A1

  20. bit_or 0 1 0 0 1 1 11 Typical use: constructing a word out of smaller pieces. For example, if INSis the address of LOA 0, and ADRN is the address of a word containing some integer N, then the following will fill A with the bit pattern for LOA N : LOA INS OR ADRN 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 The A1

  21. bit_or 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 Typical use: constructing a word out of smaller pieces. For example, if INSis the address of LOA 0, and ADRN is the address of a word containing some integer N, then the following will fill A with the bit pattern for LOA N : LOA INS OR ADRN 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 The A1

  22. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 7 bit_xor 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 1 1 0 A B For example: LOA #11 C XOR #11 D will ensure that A contains zero. E The address (#11) does not matter! F The A1

  23. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 7 bit_xor 0 1 8 0 0 1 9 1 1 0 A B For example: LOA #11 C XOR #11 D will ensure that A contains zero. E The address (#11) does not matter! F But of course it must refer to physical memory. Why? The A1

  24. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift(right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 8 For example, if A contains 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 A then after execution of LSH 3 it will contain B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 C (the rightmost 3 bits will be “shifted out”, and D 3 new 0 bits will appear on the left). E F The A1

  25. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 8 For example, LSH 19 will yield 1 if A is negative, 9 and 0 if A is positive. A Why? B C D E F The A1

  26. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 8 For example, LSH 19 will yield 1 if A is negative, 9 and 0 if A is positive. A B For example,LSH -1 C LSH 1 D will ensure the sign bit is zero E (the incoming bit is always zero). F The A1

  27. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 8 For example, LSH 19 will yield 1 if A is negative, 9 and 0 if A is positive. A B For example,LSH -1 C LSH 1 D will ensure the sign bit is zero E (the incoming bit is always zero). F RECALL that just changing the sign bit will not turn, say, - 17 into + 17. The A1

  28. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 8 For example, LSH 19 will yield 1 if A is negative, 9 and 0 if A is positive. A B For example,LSH -1 C LSH 1 D will ensure the sign bit is zero E (the incoming bit is always zero). F RECALL that just changing the sign bit will not turn, say, - 17 into + 17.How should we negate a number? The A1

  29. How should we negate a number? Recall that we must flip all the bits, and then add one. To flip all the bits in the accumulator, we can perform exclusive or with a word containing a 1 in every position. Can you see why? The A1

  30. How should we negate a number? Recall that we must flip all the bits, and then add one. To flip all the bits in the accumulator, we can perform exclusive or with a word containing a 1 in every position. If the corresponding bit in the accumulator is a 1, both bits will be the same, and the result will be a 0; if the bit in the accumulator is 0, both bits will differ, and the result will be 1. The A1

  31. How should we negate a number? Recall that we must flip all the bits, and then add one. To flip all the bits in the accumulator, we can perform exclusive or with a word containing a 1 in every position. If the corresponding bit in the accumulator is a 1, both bits will be the same, and the result will be a 0; if the bit in the accumulator is 0, both bits will differ, and the result will be 1. Having flipped the bits, we must add 1: the result will be the arithmetic negation of the original number. The A1

  32. To flip all the bits in the accumulator, we can perform exclusive or with a word containing a 1 in every position. Having flipped the bits, we must add 1: the result will be the arithmetic negation of the original number. … ; some instructions here LOA N ; load the number XOR ONES ; flip all the bits ADD ONE ; add 1 STO N ; replace the number with its negation …. ; some other instructions, and HLT N LIT -17 ; some number, could be positive ONE LIT 1 ; the number 1 ONES LIT #FFFFF ; twenty bits, each of them a 1 … ; other data END The A1

  33. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 9 “Sign-extension” means that, as we shift A right, the new bits coming in from the left B will be copies of the original sign bit. C (The operand should not be negative, D arithmetic shift is always to the right.) E F The A1

  34. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 For example, ASH 19 will yield ? if A is negative, 9 and ? if A is positive. A B C D E F The A1

  35. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 For example, ASH 19 will yield -1 if A is negative, 9 and 0 if A is positive. A B C D E F The A1

  36. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 A B C D E F The A1

  37. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 A Don’t forget: ADD 17 B will not add 17toA, C it will add … what ? D E F The A1

  38. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 A Don’t forget: ADD 17 B will not add 17toA, C it will add the contents of the D word whose address is 17. E F The A1

  39. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 SUB a SUBTRACT: A := A – m[ A ] A B C D E F The A1

  40. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 SUB a SUBTRACT: A := A – m[ A ] A JMP a JUMP: IC := a B C D E F The A1

  41. The processor performs a very simple sequence of actions, over and over again: Load the word at address IC into IR: IR := m[ IC ]. Increment IC: IC := IC + 1. Perform the action prescribed by the instruction in IR. So if the action in pt. 3 sets ICto some value a, then the next instruction will be taken from address a. Found in the attic

  42. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 SUB a SUBTRACT: A := A – m[ A ] A JMP a JUMP: IC := a B C D E F The A1

  43. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 SUB a SUBTRACT: A := A – m[ A ] A JMP a JUMP: IC := a B JMZ a JUMP on Zero: if A = 0 then IC := a fi C D E F The A1

  44. 0 HLT a HALT the machine, after loading MA with a. 1 STO a STORE the accumulator: m[ a ] := A . 2 LOA a LOAD into the accumulator: A := m[ a ] . 3 AND a Bitwise AND: A := A bit_and m[ a ] . 4 OR a Bitwise OR: A := A bit_or m[ a ] . 5 XOR a Bitwise exclusive OR: A := A bit_xor m[ a ] . 6 LSH i Logical SHift (right if i positive, left otherwise) 7 ASH i Arithmetic Shift (with sign-extension) 8 ADD a ADD: A := A + m[ A ] 9 SUB a SUBTRACT: A := A – m[ A ] A JMP a JUMP: IC := a B JMZ a JUMP on Zero: if A = 0 then IC := a fi C JMN a JUMP on Negative: if A < 0 then IC := a fi D E F The A1

  45. 0 HLT a 1 STO a 2 LOA a 3 AND a 4 OR a 5 XOR a 6 LSH i 7 ASH i 8 ADD a 9 SUB a A JMP a B JMZ a C JMN a D E F Let us develop a program that will find the largest of two integers. The A1

  46. 0 HLT a 1 STO a 2 LOA a 3 AND a 4 OR a 5 XOR a 6 LSH i 7 ASH i 8 ADD a 9 SUB a A JMP a B JMZ a C JMN a D E F Let us develop a program that will find the largest of two integers. We have no comparison operation, so what do we do? The A1

  47. 0 HLT a 1 STO a 2 LOA a 3 AND a 4 OR a 5 XOR a 6 LSH i 7 ASH i 8 ADD a 9 SUB a A JMP a B JMZ a C JMN a D E F Let us develop a program that will find the largest of two integers. We have no comparison operation, so we use subtraction. The A1

  48. 0 HLT a 1 STO a 2 LOA a 3 AND a 4 OR a 5 XOR a 6 LSH i 7 ASH i 8 ADD a 9 SUB a A JMP a B JMZ a C JMN a D E F Let us develop a program that will find the largest of two integers. We have no comparison operation, so we use subtraction. In pseudocode: if X – Y < 0 then MAX := Y else MAX := X fi The A1

  49. 0 HLT a 1 STO a 2 LOA a 3 AND a 4 OR a 5 XOR a 6 LSH i 7 ASH i 8 ADD a 9 SUB a A JMP a B JMZ a C JMN a D E F Let us develop a program that will find the largest of two integers. We have no comparison operation, so we use subtraction. In pseudocode: if X – Y < 0 then MAX := Y else MAX := X fi In the old days people universally used flowcharts: subtract Y from X negative? yes no MAX is Y MAX is X The A1

  50. 0 HLT a 1 STO a 2 LOA a 3 AND a 4 OR a 5 XOR a 6 LSH i 7 ASH i 8 ADD a 9 SUB a A JMP a B JMZ a C JMN a D E F Let us develop a program that will find the largest of two integers. We have no comparison operation, so we use subtraction. In pseudocode: if X – Y < 0 then MAX := Y else MAX := X fi In the old day people universally used flowcharts. Flowcharts are now considered quite obsolete, and for good reasons. The A1

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