Abbreviations

1. Abbreviations To abbreviate or not abbreviate: that is the question NEC FACET Center

2. General abbreviation rules • Most abbreviations are inappropriate for academic writing. • However, scientific and technical documents usually allow some abbreviations, but it’s always important to refer to a style guide when dealing with specific disciplines. This presentation will cover the use of abbreviations for non-scientific and non-technical documents (general academic writing).

3. Part I: Abbreviating numbers (general, times, dates, addresses, measurements, etc.)

4. When we think about numbers, we usually think about numeral expressions, i.e. 19, 1, 67, 92, etc. However, all numbers can also be expressed in word form, i.e. nineteen, one, sixty-seven, ninety-two, etc. So, when is it okay to use numeral form, and when should I spell out numbers?

5. General number rules • Most writing styles use numerals rather than words to express: With this in mind, there are a few rules to follow when using numbers in your writing. years page numbers dates time of day addresses sums of money decimals phone numbers rates of speed scenes & acts of plays.

6. Short numbers • Spell out numbers of two words or less. • Hyphenate whole numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine. • Examples: forty-nine, one, thirteen, sixty-five Julia will be sixteen on her next birthday, but she prefers reading over learning how to drive. However, she has promised her parents she will get her license before she turns twenty-one!

7. Long numbers • Use numerals for numbers longer than two words when spelled out. • Examples: 365 days a year, 17,800, 4,500 Lucy performed in 108 concerts last year.

8. Numbers at the beginning of a sentence • Spell out numbers that begin a sentence. • Example: Twenty-five people attended my knitting workshop yesterday. • If a long number begins a sentence, try to revise the sentence. • No: Two thousand five hundred ninety-four people attended this year’s Summer Fun Festival. • Yes: This year, 2,594 people attended the Summer Fun Festival.

9. If one number modifies (changes, supplements, describes) another number, write one in numeral form and spell out the other. Lilly’s 22 five-foot sunflowers thrived during the recent heat wave.

10. Time abbreviations • a.m. and p.m. – use only with exact time • use periods after the letters to indicate an abbreviation • Ex: I catch the bus at 7:15 a.m. • Ex: Julian arrived for his interview at 5:27 p.m. • Ex: Mary left for work at 2:00 p.m. (not two p.m.) Meg studied for her test until 11:00 p.m. Then, she woke up at 6:00 a.m. to squeeze in one last review before class.

11. CAUTION Don’t use a.m. and p.m. in place of the words “morning,” “evening,” and “night” when not listing an exact time. • No: I catch the bus early in the a.m. • Yes: I catch the bus early in the morning. • No: We went to the opera Monday p.m. • Yes: We went to the opera Monday evening.

12. Jimmy is such a jokester that he wore his silly pinwheel hat all morning yesterday. By 3 p.m. everyone in school had seen his goofy attire.

13. Abbreviating dates • Use numerals for dates and years. • Complete date: April 1, 1923 or 1 April 1923 • Year range: 1985-1997 • ’67 = 1967; ’70s = 1970s (note: for academic writing, unless using a title such as “the roaring ‘20s,” write out the full year.) • AD, BCE, CE are acceptable abbreviations

14. AD, BC, BCE, CE • These abbreviations are acceptable in academic writing, but remember not to separate the letters with periods. • Place these terms after the year with the exception of AD which goes before the year. In order to avoid reference to a specific religion, AD and BC have now been replaced with CE and BCE. CE = “Common Era” (replaces AD) BCE = “Before Common Era” (replaces BC)

15. Archaeologists believe Stonehenge was built in 2200 BCE.

16. addresses When listing a full address within a sentence, substitute the two-letter postal abbreviation for the state name. Remember: it’s okay to use numbers when writing addresses. Ex: The mailing address for TCC’s Northeast campus is 3727 East Apache, Tulsa, OK 74115.

17. When giving a location that doesn’t include a full address, don’t abbreviate any part of the address. NO: My quaint little home is in Raleigh, NC. Yes: My quaint little home is in Raleigh, North Carolina Yes: Raleigh, North Carolina, is where my quaint little home resides. When listing a city and state without a zip code, place a comma before and after the state name unless the name resides at the end of a sentence.

18. measurements • Generally, measurements are spelled out Ex: forty inches (not in.) five feet (not ft.) NO: Carl allowed the balloons to carry him 40 ft. in the air before he started popping them and descending to the ground. YES: Carl allowed the balloons to carry him forty feet in the air before he started popping them and descending to the ground.

19. Additional measurement rules • Hyphenate numerators from denominators in fractions. • One-half, two-thirds, three-fourths • In scientific and technical reports, it is generally okay to use numerals rather than the written form of measurements, especially if numbers are frequently referenced in the document. Non-scientific: thirty-five feet Scientific: 35 ft.

20. Part II: Abbreviating names (titles, acronyms, businesses, people, courses, Latin words, and etc.)

21. Professional Titles • Titles that fall immediately before or after proper names (John Smith, Susan Jones, etc.) may be abbreviated

22. **Caution: Don’t abbreviate titles when they are not connected with a proper noun. • No: My dr. gave me a prescription for allergy medicine. • Yes: My doctor gave me a prescription for allergy medicine. • Yes:Dr. Jones gave me a prescription for allergy medicine.

23. Exception • Academic degrees may be abbreviated without a proper noun. • Ex: My mother will finish her PhD during the same semester I finish my BA. PhD = Doctorate of Philosophy BA = Bachelor of Arts

24. Acronyms • An acronym is a set of initials pronounced as a word. • The first letter in each word is used to form a word. Examples: NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization AIDS = Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome SCUBA = Self-contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

25. Common acronyms are acceptable in writing. • If an acronym is not common, spell it out the first time followed by the acronym in parentheses. After that, it is okay to use the acronym. Example: The General Record Examination (GRE) is a test that measures undergraduate aptitude in preparation for graduate studies. It is usually administered as a Computer Adaptive Test (CAT). The GRE CAT is used by many universities nationwide.

26. Familiar Abbreviations and Initial-Letter Abbreviations • Familiar abbreviations are rarely spelled out, so it’s okay to use them in writing. Some common abbreviations include: Companies: ABC, NBC, CBS Organizations: FBI, CIA, YMCA, NAACP Universities: NYU, ACLU, Texas A&M, OSU, OU People: JFK (John F. Kennedy), LBJ (Linden B. Johnson), FDR (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) Note: Don’t use periods with acronyms and initial-letter abbreviations

27. Business Names Carmichael Bros., Inc. 25 Years • Inc. = Incorporated • Co. = Company • Int’l = International • Bros. = Brothers • Only use this type of abbreviation if it is part of an official business title. • Ex: McDougal’s Plumbing, Inc. • Ex: Samson Bros.

28. Course titles • Don’t abbreviate course titles • NO: Poli. Sci - Yes: Political Science • NO: Phys. Ed. - Yes: Physical Education • NO: Hst - Yes: History No: Anne Marie studied all night for her bio test; then she went to phys. ed. in the morning. Yes: Anne Marie studied all night for her biology test; then she went to physical education in the morning.

29. Latin abbreviations • Latin abbreviations are commonly used for source citations (works cited and parenthetical) and comments in parenthesis. • When using Latin abbreviations, make sure you understand their meaning. • i.e. = id est (that is) • e.g. = exempli gratia (for example) • et al. = et alii (and others) Check with a dictionary for meaning and proper abbreviation of other Latin words.

30. Examples Sally waited a fortnight for her test results (i.e., two weeks). Jones, Thomas, et al. Breaking the Code. New York: Smith, 2000. A style manual is always a good tool to keep on hand when writing papers (e.g., MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers).

31. Etc. • Using etc. in academic writing is considered lazy. • Give details in a list rather than abbreviating the list by using “etc.” Lazy: I picked up a few things for the party, including soda, chips, cookies, etc. Better: I picked up a few things for the party, including soda, chips, cookies, plates, and napkins.

32. Part III: Review of general rules and exceptions

33. Period use with abbreviations • Don’t use periods with the following: • Acronyms and initial-letter (NAACP, AIDS) • Two-letter mailing abbreviations (MA, OK, IN) • Compass Points (NE, SE, NW, SW) • Technical abbreviations (kph = kilometers per hours; SD = standard deviation)

34. Remember: 1. Use numerals rather than words for years, dates, addresses, page numbers, time of day, decimals, sums of money, phone numbers, rates of speed, scene and act of plays. 2. Spell-out short numbers (two words or less)

35. Remember: 3. Don’t spell-out numbers longer than two words (4,500, 18,225) 4. When spelling-out numbers, hyphenate whole numbers between 21 and 99 (twenty-one, ninety-nine)

36. Remember: 5. Spell-out numbers at the beginning of sentences. (Forty-five hundred people attended the concert.) 6. Rewrite sentences when the written form of a number is too long. (The stadium is capable of holding 20,000 people.)

37. Remember: 7. It’s okay to use numbers in scientific and technical writing for ease of reporting and reading. Ex: Of the 290 customers polled, 100% would not be surprised if gas prices rose above $4.00 a gallon. 8. It’s okay to use acronyms as long as your audience knows what they stand for.

38. Remember: 9. Don’t use periods to separate the letters of acronyms and initial-letter abbreviations (NATO, CIA). 10. Professional titles may be abbreviated as long as they are used with proper names.

39. Remember 11. Use caution with Latin abbreviations and don’t use “etc.” 12. When in doubt, check with a style manual!