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Standardizing Arguments

Standardizing Arguments. Premise 1: New Mexico offers many outdoor activities. Premise 2: New Mexico has rich history of Native Americans and of Spanish conquest Premise 3: New Mexico is inexpensive. _______________________________

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Standardizing Arguments

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  1. Standardizing Arguments • Premise 1: New Mexico offers many outdoor activities. • Premise 2: New Mexico has rich history of Native Americans and of Spanish conquest • Premise 3: New Mexico is inexpensive. _______________________________ • Conclusion: New Mexico is an excellent vacation choice.

  2. Standardizing Arguments • Claim: New Mexico is an excellent vacation choice. ______________________________________ • Support/Evidence 1: New Mexico offers many outdoor activities. • Support/Evidence 2: New Mexico has rich history of Native Americans and Spanish conquest • Support/Evidence 3: New Mexico is inexpensive.

  3. Standardizing Arguments with the Toulmin Model Premises(Grounds)→→→Conclusion (Claim) REASONING (WARRANT) G → So C; SinceW Harry was born in the U.S. (Grounds) → So: Harry is a U.S. citizen (Claim) SinceA person born in the U.S. is legally a U.S. citizen (Warrant)

  4. Toulmin Model, cont. (G) Harry was born in the U.S. →So: (Q) presumably, (C) Harry is a U.S. citizen (R) unless he did not claim the U.S. citizenship Since (W) A person born in the U.S.is legally a U.S. citizen On account of (B) U.S. immigration law

  5. Main Types of Reasoning • INDUCTIVE: forming generalizations from specific instances • DEDUCTIVE: reasoning from principles (known facts) • CAUSAL reasoning • PARALLEL CASE

  6. Inductive Reasoning • Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.

  7. Guidelines for Inductive Reasoning • Are there enough specific instances? • Are the specific instances typical? • Are the instances recent / relevant?

  8. Deductive Reasoning • Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion. • The conclusion of deductive reasoning is certain rather than probable.

  9. Syllogisms • Major Premise: All humans are mortal • Minor Premise: Socrates is a human Therefore: • Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

  10. Guidelines for Deductive Reasoning • Make sure listeners will accept your general principle (major premise) • Provide evidence to support your minor premise

  11. Causal Reasoning • Reasoning that seeks to establish causal relationship between two phenomena / events. • A causes B

  12. Guidelines for Causal Reasoning • Avoid the fallacy of false cause • Do not assume that events have only a single cause

  13. Parallel cases Reasoning • Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

  14. Guidelines for Parallel Cases Reasoning • Above all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike

  15. Fallacy • An error in reasoning.

  16. Fallacies • Hasty generalization • Causal Fallacies (False cause) • Bandwagon Fallacy • Ad Hominem • Either / Or Fallacy • Invalid analogy • Appeals to Misplaced Authority, Ignorance, Emotion, Tradition

  17. Hasty Generalization • A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

  18. False Cause • A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

  19. Invalid Analogy • An analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

  20. Red Herring • A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

  21. Red Herring • “Why should we worry about the amount of violence on television when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

  22. Ad Hominem • A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

  23. Ad Hominem • “The governor has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

  24. Either-Or • A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

  25. Either-Or • “The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

  26. Bandwagon • A fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

  27. Bandwagon • “The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

  28. Slippery Slope • A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

  29. Slippery Slope • “Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”

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