New Encounters: The Creation of a World Market

1. New Encounters: The Creation of a World Market

2. An Age of Exploration and Expansion • Islam and the Spice Trade • Muslim activity • Malacca • A New Player: Europe • Nicolò, Maffeo, and Marco Polo, 1271 • Economic motive • Religious zeal • Expansion a state enterprise; monarchs had the authority and resources • Knowledge and technology by the end of the 15th century • Seaworthy ships • Knowledge of the wind systems

3. Portuguese Maritime Empire • Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) • School for navigators, 1419 • Exploring down the west coast of Africa • Slaves • Bartolomeu Dias, 1487 • Vasco da Gama, 1498 • Calicut • Admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque • Goa, 1510 • Malacca, 1511 • Success of the Portuguese • Guns and seamanship

4. Voyages to the “New World” • Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) • Voyages in 1492, 1493, 1498, and 1502 • John Cabot, 1497 • New England • Pedro Cabral, 1500 • Brazil • Amerigo Vespucci • Treaty of Tordesillas, 1494 • Conquest of Mexico, (1519-1522), and Peru, (1531-1536)

5. Administration of the Spanish Empire in the New World • Encomienda • Forced labor • Diease • Council of the Indies • Viceroy • New Spain and Peru • Papal agreement

6. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. Spanish and Portuguese Voyages in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 1. The Silk Road ran from Chang’an to Samarkand and to the Arabian Sea. Goods such as silk, porcelain, and spices would make their way to the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Dominating this trade on the Mediterranean end were the Italian city states, especially Venice. Jealousy over the wealth generated by the trade inspired Portugal and Spain to find an alternate route to interdict the trade. 2. Portuguese ships (with northern influences) were designed for the rough seas of the Atlantic while ships of the Mediterranean were generally intended for its calmer waters. Nevertheless, ships were small which placed limitations on the amount of food and water that could be stored. It was this factor that restricted long voyages. 3. Two elements contributed to Portugal's interest in Africa. First, they wished to bypass the Muslim middlemen in the African gold trade with Europe. With limited resources in gold, much of Europe's demands were filled by gold mined in western Africa. Secondly, the Portuguese hoped to find the fabled Prester John, a Christian African king, with whom they hoped to ally to defeat the Muslims. 4. Vasco da Gama successfully made the round trip from Portugal to Calicut, India, in 1497-98. Significantly, he had to force the Indians to trade since the quality of the European goods was crude. After this first contact, every March a fleet was sent to India. By force, the Portuguese further opened up Goa, Malacca, and Macao. 5. The long and difficult route of Bartholomew Díaz (1487-88) along western Africa to the Cape of Good Hope was improved upon by Vasco da Gama (1497-99) who searched far out into the southern Atlantic to find favorable winds. This technique became common practice and led Pedro Alvares Cabral to encounter the coast of Brazil in 1500. Amerigo Vespucci accompanied many of the subsequent voyages to South America. 6. The opening of the Orient by the Portuguese provided Europe with Asian goods that had been cut to a trickle by the conquests of the Turks. It also meant that the Italian merchants could be cut out of the eastern trade. With commerce now concentrated on the Atlantic ports, the importance of Italy as a center of commerce declined. 7. Christopher Columbus offered his services to Portugal, France, and England as well as Spain. In part, approval was a result of miscalculating the distance between Asia and Portugal. This was important because no ships of the day had the capability to sail the true distance. As it was, it took 36 days to sail from the Canary Islands to landfall at San Salvador Island. The discovery by Columbus led to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 that divided the newly discovered worlds into Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence. 8. In 1497 King Henry VII (1485-1509) of England commissioned John Cabot, a Genoese merchant living in London, to find the elusive northwest passage. Although Cabot failed, the voyage did take him to Newfoundland and provided the later basis for English claims to North America. 9. In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan, commissioned by Spain, took a fleet south and west seeking to find a direct route to Asia. His quest led to a dramatic voyage around the world. Nevertheless, Magellan was killed in the Philippines. In 1522 the only surviving ship under Magellan's navigator Sebastian del Cano returned to Spain with fifteen survivors. Questions: 1. What restrictions hampered European exploration? 2. Consider the significance of each of the voyages portrayed on the map. Spanish and Portuguese Voyages in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

7. The Impact of European Expansion • Native Americans ravaged by disease • Psychological impact • Conquerors sought gold and silver • New products sent to Europe • Deepened rivalries • Why did Europeans risk their lives?

8. New Rivals • Portugal lacked the numbers and wealth to dominate trade in the Indian Ocean • Spain in Asia but only consolidated their hold on the Philippines • First English expedition to the Indies in 1591 • Surat in northwestern India in 1608 • Dutch arrive in India in 1595 • Dutch East India Company formed in 1602

9. France, Britain, and Holland in the Americas • Portuguese in Brazil in 1549 • Dutch West India Company, 1621 • English seize New Netherlands from the Dutch in America in 1664 • Canada became property of the French in 1663 but did not adequately man or defend it • English begin colonizing the Atlantic seaboard of North America

10. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. European Possessions in the West Indies Slide 4 1. The island of Hispaniola was occupied by the Spanish in 1492 when Columbus was forced to establish the settlement of La Navidad at the eastern extreme of the island following the grounding of the Santa Maria. Santo Domingo was established in 1496 and served not only as the Spanish capital of Hispaniola but also the first permanent European settlement in the New World. By 1606, so many colonists had been drawn to Peru and Mexico that the Spanish crown ordered the few colonists left to move closer to Santo Domingo. French, English, and Dutch pirates took over the abandoned northern and western coasts. Pirates especially used the island of Tortuga to raid Spanish gold and silver shipping. Unable to drive the pirates out, Spain recognized French control of the western third of the island. 2. The Isthmus of Panama was occupied by Spain in 1509, the same year as Puerto Rico was conquered. In 1511, Cuba was occupied, followed by the invasion of Mexico in 1519. Florida was claimed for Spain in 1513 and the first permanent settlement, St. Augustine, was established in 1565. 3. Jamaica was claimed by Columbus for Spain in 1494 but was used only as asupply base. In 1655 the British invaded the island and by 1669 controlled it. During the 1670s, British pirates used Jamaica to attack Spanish ports and shipping. 4. British loggers first arrived in Belize in 1638 and shortly thereafter British settlers arrived. Consistently, the settlers had to fight off the Spanish from nearby territories. 5. Although Columbus first touched land in the Bahamas (perhaps Watlings Island) in 1492, the Spanish did not settle. The Bahamas remained uninhabited by the Europeans until the mid 1600s when the British began settling. Spain challenged the British in the late 1600s but was unsuccessful. In 1717 the Bahamas became a British colony. 6. In 1682 Louisiana was claimed for France by Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle. The area became a royal colony in 1699. 7. On the third voyage (1498-1500), Columbus anchored at Trinidad and from there sailed along the Venezuelan coast. The Spanish Main, as northern South America was called, was delayed in occupation until after 1535 due to the hostile natives and forbidding jungles. The Spanish did occupy Curaçao in 1527 but the Dutch captured the Antilles area in 1634 and soon settled on the other islands. In 1667 the Dutch took control of the British territory on the northeast coast of South America (modern Surinam) as part of the settlement over New York. Question: 1. How did the Europeans divide the newly discovered lands of the West Indies and the mainland? Were there any impediments? European Possessions in the West Indies

11. Africa in Transition • Portuguese in east Africa • Gold trade • Mwene Matapa • Southern Africa • Settled by the Dutch, Boers, in 1652 • West Africa • Mali • Songhai • King Askia Mohammed, 1493-1528 • Broke up after his death • Increased European contact with West Africa

12. The Slave Trade • Existed in Africa before the coming of the Europeans • Portuguese replaced European slaves with Africans • Sugar cane and sugar plantations • Colonization of the Americas • First boatload of African slaves directly from Africa brought by the Spanish in 1518 • 275,000 enslaved African exported to other countries • Between 16th and 19th centuries about 10 million Africans shipped to the Americas • Numbers of slaves exported • Death rates • Most slaves prisoners or war captives • European slavers at first gained slaves from local merchants for guns, textiles, copper or iron utensils • Impact on social and political conditions • Depopulation in some areas but less true in West Africa • European justification

13. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The Slave Trade 1. The first European enslavement of Africans came in 1441 when the Portuguese took back to Lagos for sale twelve captive Berbers from south of what is now Morocco. Because the Portuguese came to control the most important slave collection points of the Cape Verde Islands1 São Tome, São Jorge da Mina, and Angola, they were involved in the international slave trade from its inception. 2. In 1501 the Spanish government issued its first laws for the export of slaves to America. At this time the slaves were more often white (Spain and North Africa) than black. In 1505 a ship from Spain arrived in Hispaniola carrying seventeen Hispanicised black slaves. The slave trade became massive when in 1510 royal orders were given for the transport of slaves to the Indies. In 1518 the first cargo of slaves arrived directly from Africa to Hispaniola. In 1513 the Spanish crown began licensing the slave trade to the Indies through contracts (asientos). Licensed slaves were to be taken from Guinea or any other part of Africa and shipped to Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Yucatan, or New Spain. The Portuguese were involved in contraband slave trade to Spanish possessions until 1580 when the Portuguese crown fell to Spain and the activity became legal. 3. The importation of black slaves into Brazil was legalized in 1549 but blacks were not imported in any great numbers until 1570. The sources of Portuguese slaves to Brazil were the port of São Paulo de Luanda and Mozambique. 4. Although English colonies in the Caribbean and later on the North American coast faced similar shortages of labor as the Spanish and Portuguese, they relied on indentured servants to fill the void. Nevertheless, black slaves were imported. In 1619, seventeen slaves were brought to Jamestown by the Dutch. By 1650 black slavery was well entrenched in the English Caribbean and mainland colonies. 5. A typical slaving expedition leaving Spain in the sixteenth century could last from eighteen months to four years. Depending on the state of the local markets, it could take up to a year to obtain a cargo of slaves. Once the slaves had been procured, it would take two months or more to cross the Atlantic to the Americas, depending on the currents, winds, and destination. 6. Only about two percent of the slaves destined for America came from Mozambique. About 23 percent of the slaves came from Angola and the Congo, 75 percent from Senegambia and the Gold Coast. Sixty percent of the slaves were destined for the West Indies and Spanish America, 35 percent for Brazil, and only 5 percent to British North America/United States. Seventy percent of all Portuguese slaves came from Angola. Question: 1. From where did the slave trade originate and who controlled it? The Slave Trade

14. Political and Social Structures in a Changing Continent • Importation of manufactured goods from Europe undermined foundations of local cottage industry • Limited European penetration of Africa • Altering of trading empires • European impact on inland areas • European impact on West Africa • Unity and benefits for West African kingdoms • Involvement in the slave trade and temptations of profit contributed to conflict among states • Splintering of the Congo region • East Africa • Movements by Arab forces to expel the Portuguese

15. Southeast Asia in the Era of the Spice Trade: The arrival of the West • Dutch East India Company • Batavia, 1619 • Java and Sumatra have pepper plantations • Cohesive monarchies in Burma, Thailand, and Vietnam resisted foreign encroachment • Spices did not flourish on the mainland • Europeans became involved in factional struggles • By end of the 18th century Europeans began to abandon their trading stations

16. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The Pattern of World Trade 1. One of the consequences of the Portuguese exploration of the African coast was the discovery of sources of gold as well as ivory and slaves. Pushing their exploration on to India in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese were able to establish a monopoly over the spice trade thereby considerably damaging the Muslim middlemen. Establishing a headquarters at Goa in 1510, the Portuguese ranged further east to Malacca and the Moluccas (Spice Islands) in search for spices. Later, the Spanish, Dutch, English, and French would interject themselves into the Asian trade. While spices were the mainstay of the international trade, silk textiles were also a prominent trade item. 2. In Spanish and Portuguese America the quest for gold and silver wasultimately fulfilled in Mexico and Peru. When the colonial economies expanded, they came to produce sugar in Mexico, the Caribbean, and Brazil, hides in South America, coffee in Brazil. 3. In North America, furs from the north were a major export. In the south, tobacco and rice drove the economies. In the northeast, the Grand Banks proved to be one of the world's great fishing grounds. 4. As capitalism and wealth grew in Europe, there was more and more demand for the goods from overseas. Meanwhile, trade was not only international but also regional, especially in Asia where tin, copper, gold, agricultural products, cloth, textiles, and ceramics were exchanged. For the colonizing powers, the availability of luxury goods and raw materials from overseas was counterbalanced the opening of markets for goods produced in the mother countries. Mercantilism ruled the day as each state sought to close it markets to its own businessmen, this being especially so with Spain and England. The ultimate objective was to cut out the foreign middlemen. Questions: 1. What was the importance of developing a world trade for the Europeans? 2. What was the role of mercantilism in the world trading pattern? 3. How integrated was the world economy? The Pattern of World Trade

17. State and Society in Pre-colonial Southeast Asia • Religion and Kingship • Islam and Christianity make inroads • Buddhism in the lowland areas • Four types of political systems:Buddhist kings • Javanese kings • Islamic sultans • Vietnamese Emperors • Economy and Society • Mostly agriculture during the early European period • Cash crops begin to replace subsistence farming • Southeast Asia an importer of manufactured goods • Exports of tin, copper, gold, fruits, ceramics • Higher standard of living than most of Asia • Social institutions

18. Discussion Questions • Trace the background of Columbus’ voyages to the New World. • How will the discovery of the western hemisphere impact Europe? • How will the discovery of the western hemisphere impact the Native Americans? • What affect will the discovery of the western hemisphere change the pattern of slavery in Africa?

19. The Muslim Empires

20. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. Ottoman Empire's Growth and Decline 1. The Ottomans are named after a Turkish emir named Osman (1299-1326) who founded a dynasty when he set up a border state on the Byzantine frontier in western Anatolia about 1288. Taking advantage of the collapse of the empire of the Seljuk Turks, the Ottomans began expansion in the fourteenth century. 2. In 1345 Ottoman forces crossed into the Balkans where they were able to take advantage of the weakness created by the Black Death. At Kossovo in 1389 the Ottomans decisively defeated Christian Balkan forces. The Christians were again routed at Nicopolis in 1396. 3. Mehmet II (1451-1481) turned his attention on Constantinople (Istanbul). He assembled a fleet at Gallipoli, amassed armaments, and built the fortress of Rumeli Hisar on the European shore of the Bosporus. In April 1453 the siege began. Fifty-four days later, May 29, 1453, the city walls were breached and Constantinople fell. Renamed Istanbul, it was to be the new capital. Considering themselves the successors to the Byzantine emperors, the Ottomans began further imperialistic expans~on. Anatolia was conquered in the east and in the west the Ottomans drove into the Aegean and then up the Adriatic coast. In 1480 the Italian port of Oranto was taken. Wallachia in the north was conquered in 1476 but the resistance from the Hungarians kept the Ottomans in check thereby preventing them from going up the Danube valley. 4. South of Asia Minor, the Ottomans conquered Egypt in 1517 and held Syria and Palestine by 1526. Throughout the rest of the century attacks would be pressed in North Africa until it too was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. 5. In 1521, after consolidating their eastern provinces, the Ottomans under Suleiman I (1520-1566), the Magnificent, began a thrust up the Danube and gained the Serbian capital of Belgrade. At the battle of Nohacs in 1526 the Hungarians were crushed. Three years later, Vienna was under siege. The Turkish forces withdrew, however, due to the insistence of the Janissaries (the elite, professional soldiers of the Ottoman army) that they return home before winter. 6. In 1571 a large Turkish fleet was smashed at Lepanto by an armada of over two hundred ships from Spain, Venice, and the papacy. Although defeated, the Turks rebuilt their fleet and continued to exercise control over the Mediterranean. 7. The Ottomans were on the move again in the seventeenth century across the Hungarian plain and by 1683 were laying siege to Vienna. Defeated by a large united Christian force that used heavy artillery (the Turks had none), the Ottomans withdrew. In the Peace of Karlowitz in 1699 the Turks gave up Hungary and Transylvania to Austria. Question: 1. What successes and failures did the Ottomans have in their expansion up to the end of the fifteenth century? 2. What was the driving force for Ottoman expansion? 3. What was the threat of Ottoman expansion to Europe? The Ottoman Empire’s Growth and Decline

21. The Ottoman Empire • Osman (1280-1326); leader of Osman Turks • At first peaceful, pastoral people • Osmanli (Ottoman) dynasty • Byzantine Empire weakened by the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, 1204 • Orkhan I (1326-1360) attacked across the Bosporus into the Balkans • Murad I (1360-1389) • Reduces the Byzantine emperor to a vassal • Janissaries • Battle of Kossovo, 1389 • Bayazid I(1389-1402) • Mehmet II (1451-1481) • Constantinople, 1453

22. Expansion of the Empire • Selim I (1512-1520) • Consolidate control over Mesopotamia and Northern Africa • Pashas collected taxes • Decline in the seventeenth century

23. Turkish Expansion in Europe • Suleyman I the Magnificent (1520-1566) • Belgrade, 1521 • Battle of Mohács, 1526 • Vienna, 1529 • Turkish defeated by the Spanish at Lepanto, 1571 • Vienna, 1683

24. Nature of Turkish Rule • Sultan • Evolution from bey to sultan • Topkapi Palace • Harem (Private domain of the sultan) • Place of women in the harem depends on giving birth to sons • Women of the harem often exercised influence • Members of the harems were often slaves • Educated and trained like Janissaries in the Devshirme • Harem made up of extended family; few used for sex • Grand Vezir, the chief minister • Provinces and districts governed by officials who combined civil and military functions • Senior officials assigned land by the sultan

25. Religion and Society in the Ottoman World • The Ottoman ruling elites were Sunni Muslims • Claimed the title of caliph • Had to uphold the Shari’a, Islamic Law • Sufism • Non-Muslims • Position of women

26. Ottomans in Decline • Battle of Carlowitz, 1699 • Reasons for decline • Administrative system began to break down • Changes in the devshirme system • Corruption • Material affluence and impact of western ideas and customs • Weak rulers

27. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The Ottoman and Safavid Empires 1. The Safavids were rooted in the small provincial town of Ardabil in Azerbaijan west of the Caspian Sea. A Sufi order here was called Safavid after its first leader Safi al-Din, a Sunni, who died in 1334. Due to political chaos, the Safavid family maintained local autonomy. Sometime after 1392, they became Shi'ites and by the 1450s were seeking political power, raiding into Christian Georgia. Instrumental in the rise of the Safavid would be the acceptance of Shi'ism in western Iran and eastern Asia Minor by Turkoman tribes. As Sunni Muslims, the Ottomans clashed with the Shi'ite Safavids over domination of Islamic territories and Islamic doctrines. 2. The founder of the Safavid dynasty was Isma'il (1502-1524) who militarily extended Safavid power. In 1501 Armenia (southwest of the Black Sea) and Azerbaijan were seized by Isma'il and he was proclaimed shah of Tabriz. He declared Shi'ism the official and compulsory religion of his new empire. This was followed by gains in central and southern Iran in 1503, most of the Tigris-Euphrates basin in 1504, Baghdad (on the Tigris) and southwestern Iran in 1508, and by 1512 had taken from the Uzbek Turks all of eastern Iran between the Oxus River and the Arabian Sea. Isma'il's aggression in the west against the Sunni Ottomans led ta a Safavid defeat northwest of Tabriz in 1514. The defeat gave the Ottomans control of the region and forced the Safavid to move its capital from Tabriz eventually to Isfahan. 3. Isfahan was a magnificent, prosperous city built on trade and industry. By the seventeenth century it had a population of perhaps 600,000. The city contained 162 mosques and 48 colleges and academies. In addition to 273 public baths, gardens, pools, and parks that dotted the landscape, there was a great open square 1680 feet by 522 feet. The two major sources of production were weaving and tile making. Factories employed 25,000 weavers who produced carpets, brocades, and silks. Glazed building tiles were produced by 300 imported Chinese potters. (Sydney Nettleton Fisher and William Ochsenwald, The Middle East, pp. 220-222) 4. Isma'il's successor, Tahmasp I (1524-1576), proved to be weak and lost much of the territory to the powerful Ottoman forces of Suleiman I (1520-1566). The fortunes of the Safavid were revived by Shah Abbas I (1587-1629) who, with the aid of Europeans and a reorganized army, moved against the Uzbeks and Turks to regain territories but was unable to hold them as war against the Ottomans lasted from the 1620s to 1638. A succession of weak leaders after Abbas left the Safavids impotent. In 1722 Shah Hussein (1694-1722) was forced to abdicate as Sunni Afghans captured Isfahan. Persia fell into political and social anarchy and the assassination of Nader Shah in 1747 ended the Safavid dynasty. Questions: 1. How did the Safavid expand their empire? 2. How does Isfahan illustrate the wealth of the Safavids? The Ottoman and Safavid Empires, ca. 1683

28. Ottoman Art • Pottery, rugs, textiles, jewelry, arms, armor, and calligraphy • Architecture • Santa Sophia and Blue Mosque in Istanbul • Tiles and mosaics; new glazed tile • Silk industry; rugs

29. The Safavid • Shah Ismail (1487-1524) • Was Sufi • Seized much of Iran and Iraq, 1501 • Sent Shi’ite preachers into Anatolia • Ottomans attack Shah Abbas I, the Great, 1850’s • Safavid forced to move capital • Safavid reach the zenith of their glory • Problems following Abbas, the Great

30. Safavid Politics and Society • Used Shi’ism as a unifying force • Pyramidal political system, shah at the top • Economy of commerce and manufacturing • Safavid Art and Literature • Isfahan • Textiles • Silk weaving • Painting

31. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. The Moghul Empire 1. The founders of the Moghuls were Chaghatay Turks descended from Timur (Timurlane). Originating beyond the Hindu Kush, they were driven out of central Asia in 1504 by the Uzbek Turks. Babur (1483-1530), the founder of the Moghul dynasty, seized Kabul and in 1526 defeated the Afghan king of Delhi.Delhi and Agra were captured and Babur was proclaimed emperor of Hindustan. Babur's son, Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556), was unable to hold his legacy and was driven into exile to Persia. With the help of the Safavid shah, Tahmasp (1524-1576), Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555. 3. One of the greatest rulers in Indian history was Akbar (1556-1605), Humayun's son. Pursuing an aggressive expansionist policy, by the time of Akbar's death the Moghuls controlled the land from the Himalaya Mountains to the Godavari River in central India and from Kashmir to the mouths of the Brahmapatra and Ganges Rivers. Along with Delhi and Agra, newly constructed (1571-1586) Fatchpur Sikri, 26 miles from Agra, also served as an imperial capital. 4. Akbar's son Jahangir (1605-1627) did not possess his father's abilities but did succeed in consolidating Moghul rule in Bengal. Expansion continued under Shah Jahan (1627-1657), Jahangir's son, who waged campaigns on the northwestern frontier of the Hindu Kush and in the Deccan plateau. Shah Jahan founded a new capital at Delhi in 1648 to supersede Agra. When Shah Jahan's wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died delivering her thirteenth child, he ordered construction of the Taj Mahal at Agra as an enduring monument. 5. With no formal procedure for succession, Shah Jahan's two sons struggled for power. The victor was Aurangzeb (1659-1707) who executed his brother and had himself crowned emperor in 1658. His father was imprisoned. Aurangzeb expanded the MoghulEmpire south to Mysore and Marathas in the western Daccan. Heavy-handed policies led to rebellion of the Hindu Marathas who were defeated but nonetheless continued to fight. After Aurangzeb's death they created a confederation of almost all the Deccan states under their leadership. 6. India was opened to European trade by Vasco da Gama's voyage from Lisbon to Calicut, 1497-1499. The Portuguese also established themselves at Goa, Daman, Diu, and Colombo in Ceylon. In 1608 the English arrived at Surat and were granted commercial concessions in 1619. Numerous other commercial centers followed: Fort St. George (Madras) in 1639; Bombay in 1668 (given to England in 1662 when a Portuguese princess married King Charles II) which was leased to the British East India Company; and Fort William (Calcutta) founded by the East India Company. In the 1670s the French East India Company also established numerous settlements includingChandernagore just north of Calcutta and Pondicherry. Question: 1. How did the Moghul empire expand? What was the price of succession? The Mughal Empire

32. The Grandeur of the Mughals • Mughal Dynasty: A “Gunpowder Empire”? • Babur (1483-1530) • Captures Delhi in 1526 and thus control of the northern plains • Humayun (1530-1556) • Was forced to flee in 1540 • Recaptures Delhi in 1555 • Akbar (1556-1605) • Expansion under Akbar • Akbar and Indo-Muslim Civilization • Religious tolerance • Din-I-ilahi (Divine Faith) • Administration • Legal system

33. Twilight of the Mughals • Jahangir (1605-1628) • In early years strengthened central control • Court falls under influence of one of his wives • Shah Jahan (1628-1657) • Killed all his rivals when he came to the throne • Expanded the boundaries • Growing domestic problems • Taj Mahal • Augangzeb (1658-1707) • Reforms and religious intolerance • Rebellions • Reasons for collapse • Draining of the imperial treasury • Decline in the competence of Mughal rulers • Loosely knit principalities • Unwillingness of the wealthy to accept authority

34. Impact of Western Power in India • The Portuguese arrived first • The English arrive at Surat in 1608 • Send an ambassador in 1616 • Fort William (Calcutta) • Dutch and French • Joseph François Dupleix • Pondicherry • Continued English activities • Sir Robert Clive • British East India Company • Battle of Plassey, 1757 • British began to consolidate control • Effects of British control

35. ©2004 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license. India in 1805 1. The weakness of Aurangzeb resulted in not only Mughal provincial governors ruling more independently but also the continued revolt of the Marathas who pressed uncontrollably northward. In 1739 the Mughal army was defeated by Persian invaders and Delhi was looted. Constant skirmishes between the Afghans and the Marathas over the Punjab (south of Kashmir) led to a defeat of the Marathas in 1761. Such difficulties left India with no power capable of halting European penetration. 2. The British East India Company traded silver, copper, zinc, and fabrics to the Indians in return for cotton goods, silks, sugar and opium (to be used in the trade with China). An example is that at Madras and Calcutta where Indian cotton goods were shipped to the East Indies and bartered for spices which were then sent back to England. 3. The two major powers contending for control of weakened India were France and Britain. The French arrived in India in the 1670s and established several trading factories. Under the aggressive leadership of Joseph Dupleix, the governor general of Pondicherry, Fort St. George at Madras was captured in 1746 and by 1751 the French had gained control of the Deccan and Carnatic regions. In the meantime, Sir Robert Clive consolidated British control in Bengal by buying off the officers of the French-supported governor and then defeated the governor at Plassey, north of Calcutta, in 1757. Clive followed this with victories in the south against the French as the British navy prevented the arrival of French reinforcements. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 ending the Seven Years' War in Europe recognized British control of much of India. 4. In 1773, fearing too much power in the hands of the British East India Company, the office of governor-general was created to exercise political authority over the territory controlled by the company. Warren Hastings was the governor of Bengal and the first governor general with jurisdiction over Bombay and Madras. Facing him was a coalition of the rulers of Mysore and the Marathas who wished to expel the British. The third governor general, Richard Wellesley (1797-1805) defeated Mysore in 1799 and the Marathas four years later. The impotent Mughals could do nothing but accede to the reality of British control. Questions: 1. Why was India unable to resist the British and French incursions? 2. How did the British establish their predominance in India in the eighteenth century? India in 1805

36. Society and Culture under the Mughals • Daily life • Position of women • Mix of Hindu, Muslim, and tribal practices • sati • Women in commerce • Hindus efforts to defend themselves • Commercialization of India • Mughal Culture • Islamic combined with Persian and indigenous influences • Architecture • The most visible achievement • The Taj Mahal; Humayun’s mausoleum

37. Discussion Questions • How does geography give the Ottoman’s an advantage? • What were the characteristics of the style of rule in the Ottoman, the Safavid and the Mughal Empires? • What were the similarities and/or differences of daily life under the three empires similar ? • How was culture similar and/or different under the three empires?