Education Policy and Social Integration:

1. Education Policy and Social Integration: Globalization, Migration, and the Debate on the insignificance of Race/Ethnicity

2. Globalization • Zygmunt Bauman (1998): globalization is “annulment of temporal/spatial distances.” • Marshall McLuhan: “global village” – a world compressed in time and space by new technologies of communications. • Ulrich Beck (2000): "Globalization…denotes the process through which sovereign national states are criss-cross and undermined by transnational actors with varying prospects of power, orientations, identities and networks.“

3. International Migration • At least 160 million people were living outside their country of birth or citizenship in 2000 (Martin & Widgren, 2002). • Why move? World System Theory • Structure of global markets: core vs. peripheral • Economic penetration by multinational companies • Cultural penetration of capitalist institutions (cultural link, life style) • In the peripheral, raw materials and labor under global market control  mechanization, cash crop farming • Surplus labors are socially and economically uprooted people who are prone to migration (push factor)

5. Immigrant Groups • http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2009/03/10/us/20090310-immigration-explorer.html

6. Contemporary Immigration • Legal immigrants: about 2,200 daily (Martin & Medgley 1999). • Since the Immigration Act of 1965, over 20 million legal immigrants have arrived (Alba & Nee 2003). • Unauthorized entries: about 5,000 each day • Illegal immigrants: about 1,000 escaped apprehension. • K-12 schooling: 20% are immigrants’ children.

7. U.S. Population by Race/Ethnicity Asian/other 1% Asian/other 5% Hispanic 5% Hispanic 13% Black 11% Black 13% White 83% White 70% 1970 2000 Asian/other 11% Hispanic 25% (projected) White 52% Black 13% 2050

8. Immigrant Student’s Country/Region

9. European immigrants

10. Asian restaurant worker Mexican Farm workers

11. Immigrant Assimilation in the U.S. • Acquired (not hereditary) nationality • Common and equal participation in economic activities • Citizenship and equal participation and political affairs • Common and equal participation in social and cultural activities • Do immigrants assimilate?

12. What is Assimilation? • Robert Park & Ernest Burgess (Chicago school): Assimilation is “a process of interpenetration and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories, sentiments, and attitudes of other persons and groups and, by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated with them a common cultural life.”

13. Social Assimilation • the process by which peoples of diverse racial origins and different cultural heritages, occupying a common territory, achieve a cultural solidarity sufficient at least to sustain a national existence. • Acculturation refers to the process of minority group’s adoption of the cultural patterns of the host society. • Entrance of the minority into the social cliques, clubs, and institutions of the core society at the primary group level (cross-cultural friendship and intermarriage).

14. Structural Assimilation • the process by which immigrant groups achieve parity with natives in socioeconomic and other structural measures. • Common types: • Economic assimilation • Educational assimilation • Spatial assimilation

15. Classical Theory of Assimilation • Sociologists in the 1940s-60s: • Lloyd Warner, Leo Srole, Milton Gordon • “Straight-line” assimilation • Assimilatory change is largely one directional: the individuals who are assimilating refashion themselves to fit into the mainstream, discarding most aspects of their ethnic culture and replacing them with their mainstream equivalents. • An “unlearning” process by immigrants (Warner & Srole, 1945). • The mainstream culture is the behavioral repertoire of the WASP (white, Anglo-Saxon Protestant) upper-middle class (Gordon, 1964). • Ethnic minorities “were mixing into the tomato soup, enriching the taste, but not significantly altering the substance” (Hungtington, 2004)

16. Segmented Assimilation Theory • Portes and Zhou (1993): “Into what sector of American society a particular immigrant group assimilate?”

17. Segmented Assimilation Theory • Straight-line assimilation no longer valid because of • The skin color of contemporary immigrants • The new hour-glass economy • Three paths to assimilation • growing acculturation and parallel integration into white middle-class • Opposite direction to permanent poverty and assimilation into underclass • Rapid economic advancement with deliberate preservation of the immigrant community’s values and tight solidarity

18. Social Cleavage and Ethnic Cohesion April 29, 1992, a jury acquitted four white Los Angeles Police Department officers accused in the beating of black motorist Rodney King.

19. The 1992 Los Angeles Riots • It is also known as the 1992 Los Angeles Civil Unrestand Rodney King Uprising. • Thousands of people in the Los Angeles area rioted over the six days following the verdict. • Widespread looting, assault, arson and murder occurred. • Property damages topped roughly US$1 billion. • In all, 53 people died during the riots and thousands more were injured.

20. Koreans in the riot • During the riots, a call was put out on Korean-language radio stations for volunteer security guards. Many Koreans then rushed to Koreatown. • Television images showed two Korean merchants firing pistols repeatedly from a military stance, and Korean guards firing AR-15s from store rooftops. • There was a lot of activity to protect the Korean businesses, especially in Koreatown.

21. Modes of Incorporation GovernmentPolicy Indifferent Hostile Receptive Receptive Indifferent Hostile Nonprejudiced (N-PR) Societal Response Prejudiced (PR) PR N-PR PR N-PR Coethnic Community W W W W S W W S S S S S Immigrant Group:

23. Major challenge to the Segmented Assimilation Theory: Which groups have followed downward mobility?

24. Black Immigrants • Immigrant- and native-Black relations • Many from the Caribbean, not from Africa • Similar neighborhoods • Similar schools • Black immigrants saw themselves as superior to African Americans • Self-identification & self-presentation • Use language and accent to differentiate from black Americans • Create distinctive styles of dress; wear certain ornaments • Identification involves fighting discrimination and unfair treatment

25. Mary Waters, Black Identities • Shelly was a 25-year-old woman from Barbados who worked as a cashier in a 7-Eleven store • A black American woman attempting to steal food said to her, “Come on, you are my sister, you are from down South, from Georgia too.” • Shelly: “No, I am Caribbean.” • The manager who was Jamaican: “No, you are a West Indian, not a Caribbean.” “Caribbean included Spanish people.”

27. Black immigrants, cont’d • Black immigrant achievement (Douglas Massey, et al. 2007) • Since 1960s, emphasis on diversity in college admissions. • In 1999, 13% of African Americans were 1st or 2nd generation immigrants, but they made up 27% among black freshmen entering selective colleges (e.g., Harvard). • Education: African immigrants are the most educated group. • Henry Louis Gates pointed out at a reunion of black Harvard alumni that the majority present were of West Indian and African origin, not decedents of African American slaves: “I just want people honest enough to talk about it.”

28. Mexican Immigrants • Cross-sectional analysis found Mexican students to have the lowest educational performance of all groups. • However, cohort analysis found educational progress of Mexican immigrants (Smith, 2003).

32. Ethnic Boundaries (Alba, 2005) • Fredrik Barth (1969): social boundary • Ethnicity is conceived as a boundary with both symbolic and social aspects. It is a distinction that individuals make in their everyday lives and that shapes their actions and mental orientations towards others • Bright and blurred boundaries • Depends on whether there is no ambiguity about membership. • Minority-majority boundary • The nature of the boundary affects fundamentally the processes by which minorities gain access to the opportunity afforded by the majority

33. Ethnic Boundaries, cont’d • Boundary crossing • By individuals, no effect in the boundary • Boundary blurring • Clarity of social distinction becomes clouded • Boundary shifting • Social relocation of boundary • Former outsiders are transformed into insiders • Sites for boundary construction • Birthright citizenship – e.g., Turks in Germany; Mexican in U.S. • Religion • language

34. Boundary Shifting and Blurring in U.S. History • 1920s efforts by WASPs to exclude Jews from spheres of privilege. For example, Harvard imposed a quota on Jews, followed by other elite institutions. • Italian children used to have the worse academic outcomes, with high dropout rates • The Irish were once portrayed with “a pug nose, an underslung jaw,” and are always drunk. • Washington Post: “Will Americans vote for a black man?”

36. Evidence of Receding Ethnic and Religious Distinctions • Name change • Old generation: • Margarita Cansino Rita Hayworth • Emanuel Goldenberg  Edward G. Robinson • New generation: • Robert De Niro, Al Pacino • Barbara Streisand

37. Evidence of Contemporary Assimilation • Language assimilation • Socioeconomic position • Residential change • intermarriage

38. Speak a Language Other than English at Home 75% 60% 3%

39. Educational Assimilation • Educational Achievement • 1.5 generation and 2nd generation often have superior education attainment to natives • Strict parenting / belief in education • More years in America, more similar work habits to native whites • Oppositional identity may be a threat among some groups • Human capital immigrants’ children • surpass white children • Labor immigrants’ children • surpass their parents

40. Who is marrying whom? • New York Times Report http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/01/29/us/20110130mixedrace.html?ref=us

41. Social Identities “ An identity is a conception of the self, a selection of physical, psychological, emotional or social attributes of particular individuals.” - VirginaDominguez “identity is a relational concept; it implies a relationship between one group and an Other or Other, whether real or imagined, whether clearly specified or not… In some instances, the Other is clearly specified and the relation is that of ‘us’ vs. ‘them.’” - KianWoon Kwok

42. Multiple Identities • Foreign National Origin - they recognize themselves as part of their ethnic culture Examples: Jamaican, Nicaraguan, Cambodian. • Hyphenated American Identity - they recognize a single-foreign national origin (an acceptance of both cultures. Examples: Cuban-American, German-American. • Plain American National Identity - without a hyphen. Examples: American • Pan-ethnic Minority Group Identity - denationalized identification Examples: Hispanic, Latino, black, and Asian.

43. Ethnic Identity • Race/Ethnicity Project by the University of Washington (youtube) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDz3BJDPXHA • Rejecting the Color Lines (NYT slides) http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2011/01/30/us/20110130_MIXED-9.html • How a multiracial individual is counted http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2011/02/10/us/10count-graphic-sub2.html?ref=us

44. How did assimilation occur? • Structural change after WW II (Alba & Nee, 2003): • Civil Rights legislation to outlaw discrimination and confer on nonwhites equal rights of citizenship. • Change in immigration law ending the national quota system and opened legal immigration to non-Europeans on an equal footing. • Integration of the armed forces, a mainstream institution. • Integration in elite educational institutions

45. Education policies that facilitate social integration • Affirmative action in higher education • Bilingual education • Multicultural curriculum • Inclusion policies towards undocumented children

46. Bilingual Education • 1968 Bilingual Education Act provided funding for instruction in students’ native tongue. • 1974 Lau v. Nicholsprovided funding for bilingual education for children of Chinese ancestry. • Under the No Child Left Behind Act, parents are given the choice to enroll their children in a Bilingual Education program, with a three year "time-limit." • After three consecutive years, English-only instruction must commence, regardless of the student's English speaking ability.

47. Lau v. Nichols (1974) • In the San Francisco, California, there were 2,856 students of Chinese ancestry in the school system who did not speak English. Only about 1,000 of them were given supplemental courses in the English language. • Possible solution: • Teaching English to the students of Chinese ancestry who do not speak the language. • Giving instructions to this group in Chinese. • Other, e.g., bilingual education • Petitioners ask only that the Board of Education be directed to rectify the situation.

48. Supreme Court decision: • “There is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same facilities … for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed form any meaningful education.” • Application of the Civil Rights legislation.

49. Bilingualism in Higher Education(Chronicle, 6/1/2010) • The president of Kaplan College's campus in California, 7 miles from the Mexican border was fired over his handling of an incident in which students were told they could face academic sanctions if they spoke Spanish in class. • After the president was dismissed, the college's language policy was clarified: "Our policy is that instruction is in English but conversations can take place in any language. We don't discipline students for speaking other languages in class."

50. Proposition 227 in CA • In 1998, California voters approved by an overwhelming margin Proposition 227, the English for the Children initiative. • primary proponent, millionaire Ronald Unz • Limit bilingual education to one year. • Under the No Child Left Behind Act, the limit is three years.