Chapter 2 – 1956 to 1964

1. Chapter 2 – 1956 to 1964 Computing Comes of Age IBM 1130

2. Introduction • Clerks in offices performed many “busy” tasks- Comptometer (Pg.48) • Common Problem: Needed to store/ retrieve large amounts of data- quickly and easily

3. Core Memory – a radical innovation • Small, donut shaped materials threaded together with fine wires • See Description- Pg. 49 • Hysteresis – from Germany after WWII • Advantages • Small – non-volatile • Random Access • Began to install in existing computers

4. Core Development • German fire-control systems • Aiken’s Mark IV, 1952 - An Wang • ENIAC, 1952 – Burroughs Corp, 2D • Whirlwind, 1952 – Jay Forrester, 3D • Made it the “fastest”

5. Core Memory

6. Air Force SAGE • Semi-Automatic Ground Environment • Early called “Whirlwind II” – similarity • Core Memory 8,192 – 32-bit words • 55,000 vacuum tubes per system • Radar+Aircraft+Telephone+Radio+Ships • To detect & identify enemy aircraft • IBM won contract • Delivered Prototype 1955; 30 more • Each system = 2 identical computers

7. IBM and SAGE 650 tons: 60,000 tubes, most expensive computer • ½ Billion in revenue for IBM • Began producing own core • 1956: IBM passed UNIVAC in Installations of large systems

8. In the Meantime….. • While IBM and UNIVAC were leading, others did get in the game • Honeywell • General Electric (GE) • RCA

9. Honeywell • Raytheon failed to deliver late 1940’s government bid • Joined with Honeywell, 1955 • 1957- Datamatic 1000 • Obsolete • Used Tubes, not transistors • Withdrew; re-entered in 1960’s

10. GE • 1955- leading electronics firm • $3 billion in sales • 200,000 employees • 1953- OARAC- USAF • Sr. Management decided not to market • Why? IBM was GE’s largest customer of vacuum tubes

11. GE (continued) • Late 1950’s –ERMA • Electronic Recording Machine Accounting • “1-time project”; transistors + MICR • 1958 - Bank of America & Ronald Reagan unveiling • Research excellent but Mgmt. never committed to computer industry • 1970- sold to Honeywell- $200 million

12. RCA • $940 million sales; 98,000 employees • BIZMAC, 1955 (Arnold Spielberg, engineer) • Specialized architecture • Several Hundred tape drives • Specialized processors; sort/ search • Failure- behind improvements (tube to transistors) • Another specializedfailure: UNIVAC File

13. Architecture -- Read Pg. 58-64 • By end of 1960, approx. 6,000 G.P. computers installed in the U.S. • Word Length: Prior to core memories, fetch 1 Bit • 7-12 decimal digits; 30-50 bits • Long words costly & complex • Soon various lengths; • Variable vs. Fixed • 1954: IBM 704-36 bit word length

14. Architecture Cont. • Registers: Sets of circuits- 1950’s • Accumulator; program counter; index register • 1956 – British, 7 GP registers, 1 PC • Addresses • Single address instructions heavily used • Then 0, 2, & 3 address schemes • Stack architecture

15. Architecture Cont. • I/O Channels • UNIVAC innovations • Buffer: to help slow I/O • Interrupt: I/O when necessary • Channel: separate processor for I/O • “Becoming” 2- processor system • I/O Channel became defining characteristic of mainframe • Expensive but necessary

16. Architecture Cont. • Floating Point Arithmetic • Hardware (expensive) vs. Software (slow) • Scientific vs. Commercial • 1st Computers in 1940’s had FP Hardware (Zuse, Bell Labs) • Co-Processors; incorporated into the 486 chip

17. Transistor • Bell Labs- early 1950’s • Regulated Monopoly, telephone only • Released transistor information(small fee) • Philco-surface barrier transistor • Mass produced & reliable • Leader • SOLO: 1st general purpose, transistorized computer in U.S. (for NSA)- 1956 to 1958

18. Transistor (cont.) • TRANSAC; S-2000 (1960) • UNIVAC- Solid State 80 • Began Second Generation • 1962- Ford bought , Philco out of computer business • ** Second Generation • 1962- Ford bought Philco • Dropped computer business

19. Inventors of Transistor Shockley (seated), Bardeen (glasses), Brattain, in 1946 Nobel Prize, 1956

20. Early Transistors

21. IBM • By 1960, dominated computer industry • 1952- Justice Dept. alleged anti-trust violations in punch card business • 1956- Consent Decree • Must SELL and rent its computers • Third-party vendors bought & leased IBM • Stock soared, in spite of critics • Combination: marketing, manufacturing, & technical innovations

22. IBM cont’d • Criticism • Took innovations from smaller companies • 704: core, floating-point, FORTRAN was superior to UNIVAC • Sales Force + Manufacturing Techniques + Field Service  success

23. IBM (cont.) • Model 305 Disk • Announced 1956; marketed 1957 • Pack of 50, 24’’ platters • 1200 RPM • 5 M characters- Random Access • “Boundary Layer”- air • RAMAC –Random Access Memory Accounting Machine • 1st United Airlines for reservations • Watson, Jr. “greatest product day…”

24. IBM’s 7094 (early 1960’s) • 709 tubes 7090 transistors (USAF) • Mainframe: floor, climate • 36-bit word, 150 Kb core • Console – detailed control • Typical Process (p. 73) • Batch Processing • Separate 1401 for printing • $1.6 million - $30,000 month

25. IBM 1401 & 1620 (Late 1950’s) • Low-end, compact (sold 10K 1401) • Made possible by transistors • Stored program • Core • 1403 Printer • Fastest of its time – 600 lpm

26. Conclusion • Second Generation • Transition from tubes to transistors • Core Memories • Disks • Business computing applications • IBM success