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PENDAHULUAN PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI SEL MIKROORGANISME

MIKROBIOLOGI DASAR. POKOK BAHASAN. PENDAHULUAN PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI SEL MIKROORGANISME PERTUMBUHAN MIKROORGANISME GENETIKA MIKROORGANISME BIOENERGETIKA MIKROORGANISME PENGENDALIAN PERTUMBUHAN MIKROORGANISME INTERAKSI DAN PENYEBARAN MIKROORGANISME

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PENDAHULUAN PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI SEL MIKROORGANISME

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  1. MIKROBIOLOGI DASAR POKOK BAHASAN • PENDAHULUAN • PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI SEL MIKROORGANISME • PERTUMBUHAN MIKROORGANISME • GENETIKA MIKROORGANISME • BIOENERGETIKA MIKROORGANISME • PENGENDALIAN PERTUMBUHAN MIKROORGANISME • INTERAKSI DAN PENYEBARAN MIKROORGANISME • PERANAN MIKROORGANISME

  2. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME POKOK BAHASAN • PENDAHULUAN • EVOLUSI DAN KERAGAMAN MIKROBA • TINGKATAN TAKSONOMI • SISTEM KLASIFIKASI • KARAKTERISTIK UTAMA YANG DIGUNAKAN DALAM TAKSONOMI • PERKIRAAN (ASSESSING) FILOGENI MIKROBA • DIVISI UTAMA ORGANISME • BERGEY’S MANUAL OF SYSTEMATIC BACTERIOLOGY • GARIS BESAR FILOGENI DAN KERAGAMAN PROKARIOT • MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA

  3. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA POKOK BAHASAN • ARCHAEA • BACTERIA • FUNGI • ALGAE • PROTOZOA • VIRUS

  4. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA • VIRUS POKOK BAHASAN 1. EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF VIROLOGY 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY 7. BACTERIOPHAGES 8. VIRUSES OF EUCARYOTES

  5. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA • EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF VIROLOGY Many epidemics of viral diseases occurred before anyone understood the nature of the causative agents of those diseases • Edward Jenner: • published case reports of successful attempts to prevent disease (smallpox) by vaccination • these attempts were made even though Jenner did not know that the etiological agent of the disease was a virus • Dimitri Ivanowski • demonstrated that causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease passed through bacterial filters • thought agent was toxin 1798 1892

  6. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA • EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF VIROLOGY • Martinus Beijerinck • showed that causative agent of tobacco mosaic disease was still infectious after filtration • referred to agent as filterable virus • Loeffler and Frosch • showed that hoof-and-mouth disease in cattle was caused by filterable virus 1898-1900 1898-1900

  7. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA • EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF VIROLOGY (lanjutan) 1908 • Ellerman and Bang • the role of viruses in causing malignancies was established • leukemia in chickens was caused by a filterable virus • Peyton Rous • showed that muscle tumors in chickens were caused by a filterable virus • Frederick Twort • the existence of bacterial viruses was established • first isolated bacterial viruses • Felix díHerelle • who devised a method for enumerating them • demonstrated that they could reproduce only in live bacteria 1911 1915 1917

  8. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA • EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF VIROLOGY (lanjutan) 1935 • W.M. Stanley • demonstrate the chemical nature of viruses when he crystallized the tobacco mosaic virus • showed that it was mostly composed of protein • F. C. Bawden and N. W. Pirie • separated tobacco mosaic virus particles into protein and nucleic acid components • Virologi menjadi disiplin ilmu tersendiri 1950

  9. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA POKOK BAHASAN 1. EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF VIROLOGY 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY 7. THE BACTERIAL VIRUSES (BACTERIOPHAGES) 8. VIRUSES OF EUCARYOTES

  10. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES • They have a simple, acellular organization, consisting of one or more molecules of DNA or RNA enclosed in a coat of protein, and sometimes in more complex layers • With one known exception, virions contain either DNA or RNA, but not both • They are obligate intracellular parasites

  11. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA POKOK BAHASAN 1. PERKEMBANGAN AWAL VIROLOGI 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY 7. THE BACTERIAL VIRUSES (BACTERIOPHAGES) 8. VIRUSES OF EUCARYOTES

  12. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES • Cultivation requires a suitable host • Hosts for animal viruses • Suitable host animals • Embryonated eggs • Tissue (cell) cultures-monolayers of animal cells • Cell destruction can be localized if infected cells are covered with a layer of agar; the areas of localized cell destruction are called plaques • Viral growth does not always result in cell lysis to form a plaque; microscopic (or macroscopic) degenerative effects can sometimes be seen; these are referred to as cytopathic effects • Bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are usually cultivated in broth or agar cultures of suitable, young, actively growing host cells; broth cultures usually clear, while plaques form in agar cultures • Plant viruses can be cultivated in • Plant tissue cultures • Cultures of separated plant cells • Whole plants-may cause localized necrotic lesions or generalized symptoms of infection • Plant protoplast cultures

  13. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA POKOK BAHASAN 1. PERKEMBANGAN AWAL VIROLOGI 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY 7. THE BACTERIAL VIRUSES (BACTERIOPHAGES) 8. VIRUSES OF EUCARYOTES

  14. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS • Virus purification • Centrifugation of virus particles • Differential centrifugation separates according to size • Gradient centrifugation separates according to density or to sedimentation rate (size and density), and is more sensitive to small differences between various viruses • Differential precipitation with ammonium sulfate or polyethylene glycol separates viruses from other components of the mixture • Denaturation and precipitation of contaminants with heat, pH, or even organic solvents can sometimes be used • Enzymatic degradation of cellular proteins and/or nucleic acids can sometimes be used because viruses tend to be more resistant to these types of treatment

  15. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS • Virus assays • Particle count • Direct counts can be made with an electron microscope • Indirect counts can be made using methods such as hemagglutination (virus particles can cause red blood cells to clump together or agglutinate) • Measures of infectivity • Plaque assays involve plating dilutions of virus particles on a lawn of host cells; clear zones result from viral damage to the cells; results are expressed as plaque-forming units (PFU) • Infectious dose assays are an end point method for determining the smallest amount of virus needed to cause a measurable effect, usually on 50% of the exposed target units; results are expressed as infectious dose (ID50) or lethal dose (LD50)

  16. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA POKOK BAHASAN 1. PERKEMBANGAN AWAL VIROLOGI 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY 7. THE BACTERIAL VIRUSES (BACTERIOPHAGES) 8. VIRUSES OF EUCARYOTES

  17. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES • Virion size-ranges from 10 nm to 400 nm • General Structural Properties • Nucleocapsid-the nucleic acid plus the surrounding capsid (protein coat that surrounds the genome); for some viruses this may be the whole virion; other viruses may possess additional structures • Four morphological types of capsids and virions • Icosahedral • Helical • Enveloped-having an outer membranous layer surrounding the nucleocapsid • Complex-having capsid symmetry that is neither purely icosahedral or helical • Viral capsids are constructed from many copies of one or a few types of proteins (protomers), which are assembled, together with the viral genome, by a process called self-assembly

  18. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES (LANJUTAN) • Helical capsids - hollow tube with a protein wall shaped as a helix or spiral; may be either rigid or flexible; • Icosahedral capsids - regular polyhedron with 20 equilateral triangular faces and 12 vertices; appears spherical; constructed of capsomeres (ring or knob-shaped units), each usually made of five or six protomers

  19. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES (LANJUTAN) • Nucleic acids • Viral genome may be either RNA or DNA, single- or double-stranded, linear or circular • DNA viruses • Most use double stranded DNA as genome • Many have one or more unusual bases (e.g., hydroxymethylcytosine instead of cytosine) • RNA Viruses-most have single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) as their genome • Plus strand viruses have a genomic RNA with the same sequence as the viral mRNA; the genomic RNA molecules may have other features (5¢ cap, poly-A tail, etc.) common to mRNA and may direct the synthesis of proteins immediately after entering the cell • Negative strand viruses have a genomic RNA complementary to the viral mRNA • Segmented genomes are those in which the virion contains more than one RNA molecule; each segment is unique and frequently encodes a single protein

  20. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES (LANJUTAN) • Viral envelopes and enzymes • Envelopes are membrane structures surrounding some (but not all) viruses • Lipids and carbohydrates are usually derived from the host membranes • Proteins are virus specific • Many have protruding glycoprotein spikes (peplomeres) • Enzymes-some viruses have capsid-associated enzymes; many are involved in viral nucleic acid replication • Viruses with capsids of complex symmetry • Poxviruses are large (200 to 400 nm) with an ovoid exterior shape • Some bacteriophages have complex, elaborate shapes composed of heads (icosahedral symmetry) coupled to tails (helical symmetry); the structure of the tail regions are particularly variable; such viruses are said to have binal symmetry

  21. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA POKOK BAHASAN 1. PERKEMBANGAN AWAL VIROLOGI 2. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES 3. THE CULTIVATION OF VIRUSES 4. VIRUS PURIFICATION AND ASSAYS 5. THE STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY 7. BACTERIOPHAGES 8. VIRUSES OF EUCARYOTES

  22. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY • In 1971, the International Committee for Taxonomy of Viruses developed a uniform classification system, which places the greatest weight on these properties: • Nucleic acid type • Nucleic acid strandedness (double or single stranded) • The sense of ssRNA genomes • The presence or absence of an envelope • The host

  23. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 6. PRINCIPLES OF VIRUS TAXONOMY • In addition, other characteristics can be considered: • CAPSID SYMMETRY • DIAMETER OF CAPSID OR NUCLEOCAPSID • NUMBER OF CAPSOMERES IN ICOSAHEDRAL VIRUSES • IMMUNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES • GENE NUMBER AND GENOMIC MAP • INTRACELLULAR LOCATION OF VIRUS REPLICATION • PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF A DNA INTERMEDIATE IN THE REPLICATION OF ssRNA VIRUSES • TYPE OF VIRUS RELEASE • DISEASE CAUSED BY THE VIRUS

  24. Chapter Web Links All the Virology on the WWW(http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/garryfavweb.html) All the Virology on the WWW "seeks to be the best single site for Virology information on the Internet. We have collected all the virology related Web sites that might be of interest to our fellow virologists, and others interested in learning more about viruses". The Big Picture Book of Viruses(http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/Big_Virology/BVFamilyGenome.html) The Big Picture Book of Viruses is "intended to serve as both a catalog of virus pictures on the WWW and as an educational resource to those seeking more information about viruses". Electron microsopic images of Human Viruses(http://www.uct.ac.za/depts/mmi/stannard/linda.html) Electron microsopic images of Human Viruses - Linda Stannard's "illustrated tutorial on the morphology of most of the clinically significant viruses. The section on Hepatitis B virus is especially recommended". Visualizations of Viruses at the University of Wisconsin - Madison(http://www.bocklabs.wisc.edu/virusviztop.html) The Index Virum(http://life.anu.edu.au/viruses/Ictv/index.html) The Index Virum presents lists of virus taxa that reflect the currently approved classification of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).

  25. sekian ......

  26. Capsid morphology: Helical: protein mirip-pita membentuk spiral disekeliling asam nukleat. Dapat kaku atau fleksibel. Tobacco mosaic virus Ebola virus Polyhedral: banyak sisi. Bentuk umum adalah icosahedron, dengan 20 muka segitiga dan 12 sudut Poliovirus Herpesvirus Complex viruses: bentuk tidak teratur (umum) Bacteriophages mempunyai serabut, lembaran, dan plat yang terikat capsid Poxviruses mempunyai beberapa selubung membungkus asam nukleat.

  27. 02. PENGGOLONGAN MIKROORGANISME • VIRUS X. MENGENAL LEBIH DEKAT ANGGOTA DUNIA MIKROBA 3. STRUKTUR VIRUS

  28. Virus lebih kecil dibandingkan sebagain besar sel micro.magnet.fsu.edu/ cells/virus.html AKSES 30/03/06

  29. B. Viral Structure • Genome: • Capsid/Capsomerers • Envelopes

  30. Figure 18.2 Viral structure

  31. Figure 18.02x1 Adenovirus

  32. DNA untai tunggal (ssDNA): Parvoviruses DNA untai ganda (dsDNA): Herpesviruses Adenoviruses Poxviruses Hepadnaviruses* (Partially double stranded) RNA untai tunggal (ssRNA): dapat plus (+) atau minus (-) sense: Picornaviruses (+) Retroviruses (+) Rhabdoviruses (-) RNA untai ganda (dsRNA): Reoviruses TIPE ASAM NUKLEAT MATERI GENETIK DAPAT UNTAI TUNGGAL ATAU GANDA:

  33. Classes of Animal Viruses, Grouped by Type of Nucleic Acid

  34. Bacteria Animals Plants Fungi Protists HOST RANGE: SPECTRUM OF HOSTS A VIRUS CAN INFECT. VIRAL SPECIFICITY: TYPES OF CELLS THAT VIRUS CAN INFECT. • Dermotropic • Neurotropic • Pneumotropic • Lymphotropic • Viscerotropic: Liver, heart, spleen, etc.

  35. Lysogenic versus Lytic Cycles of Bacteriophage

  36. Life Cycle Papovirus ( Virus DNA)

  37. Retroviruses Convert RNA into DNA via Reverse Transcriptase

  38. Structure of Influenza Virus

  39. Viruses and Cancer • Cancer results from the uncontrolled reproduction of cells • Certain chemicals are known to be carcinoges or cancer-causing substances • Evidence that viruses are carcinogenic • Example: herpesviruses associated with tumors of the human cervix • Cancer development: the oncogene theory

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