“Field Research”: Interviews, Focus Groups and Observation (Babbie Ch 10)

1. Geography 237aResearch Methods “Field Research”: Interviews, Focus Groups and Observation(Babbie Ch 10) • Four Qualitative Paradigms • Interviews • Interviews vs Surveys • Terminology • Common problems • Advantages/Disadvantages • Focus Groups • Advantages/Disadvantages • Observation • Advantages/Disadvantages Geog 237a

2. Four Qualitative Paradigms Naturalism/Ethnography • strong links to positivism • assumes reality is out there to be “discovered” • focus on detailing the social world • often more attention to pattern than explanation • idiographic • e.g., Whytes “Street Corner Society” Geog 237a

3. Four Qualitative Paradigms Ethnomethodology • strong links to phenomenology • reality is socially constructed vs “out there” • researcher must interpret what study participants say/do – not take them for granted/at face value • stronger interpretive role of researcher over naturalism/ethnography • nomothetic explanations – focus on “underlying social processes” • e.g. Garfinkel’s “conversation clarification experiment” Geog 237a

4. Four Qualitative Paradigms Grounded Theory • more blatantly inductive than the other 3 paradigms • typically ideographic theory development • attempt to systematize naturalistic enquiry • constant comparative method of sampling and analysis – (see Qualitative Analysis lecture) • e.g., Glaser and Straus Case Studies • in depth study of an “instance” of a phenomenon (e.g, community, process) • principally detailed idiographic explanations (nomothetic research must apply beyond particular case) Geog 237a

5. Interviews “Interview” vs “Survey” • “interview” in geog 237 means – qualitative in-depth interview (almost always face-to-face) • in the literature, both are called “interviews” • qualitative interviews less “structured” than survey questionnaires – (but just as rigourous and useful) Geog 237a

6. Some Characteristics of Interview Research • typically exploratory • typically inductive • typically idiographic (rarely nomothetic) • typically small samples (even just one!, tens, rarely over 100) • typically individuals and groups are the units of observation Geog 237a

7. What is the instrument? • In survey research, the questionnaire is the instrument. • What is the instrument in qualitative face-to-face interviews? Geog 237a

8. Preliminary Terminology Researcher as instrument • think on feet, empathy, not passive • “data” recorded in human memory • thus, data are interpreted even at recording stage • emotionless detachment not advisable • experiential knowledge • (contrast with questionnaire) Participant • person with whom an interview is “conducted” • ideally, a two-way exchange of information • treat as human beings rather than rows in a spreadsheet. • (contrast with “respondent”) Geog 237a

9. Researcher as Instrument Several forms of experiential knowledge are necessary to attempt understanding of the complexities and peculiarities of the educational reform processes at work in these settings. Cultural knowledge is needed of the racial, cultural, and sociopolitical contexts being studied. Schooling has been administered in four separate racially segregated and inequitably funded systems--European, African, Asian, and Indian. My knowledge of the history of residential and educational segregation is necessary to understand why attending the few open schools in central city and suburban areas was so desirable for the vast numbers of non-white students living in remote area townships in which schooling has been under funded and inferior to that offered white students. Source: Brook 1992, Issues of researcher role and subjectivity in research on educational change in South Africa http://www.coe.uga.edu/quig/proceedings/Quig92_Proceedings/brook.92.html Geog 237a

10. Preliminary Terminology What about bias? • If personal, subjective knowledge about the phenomena is “allowed” what is to be done about “bias” in the results? Geog 237a

11. Preliminary Terminology Field Notes • researcher notes: • before interview • during interview • after interview Autobiography • researcher description of likely influences on interpretation • personal biases in relation to research questions and participants • track changes in views Geog 237a

12. Autobiography In describing the researcher as the primary research instrument, and as a participant observer throughout the study, there is some obligation on my part to provide a more extensive description of who “I” am, and of my experiential background, so that the reader may form a context in which to situate the comments and the conclusions of this study. As a local Hispanic woman who believes in life-long learning, I regard myself as having pulled myself up by my “boot strings” against all odds. Born in Laredo, Texas, I lived in the small South Texas town of Hebbronville for the first sixteen years of my life. I grew up as a physically challenged child who was not expected to live. Source: Gramirez, http://www.tamucc.edu/~gramirez/aperso~1.doc Geog 237a

13. Steps in Interviewing Clarify objectives • though generally inductive, still do as much background work as possible Participant Selection • typically purposive – wide variety of people to cover as many dimensions of phenomena as possible • temptation to convenience sample (those easiest to talk with) • random selection (but statistics rare) Geog 237a

14. Steps in Interviewing Interview • take field notes, audio tape record Transcribe • field notes • audio tapes • ideally researcher transcribes to “stay close” to data Geog 237a

15. Steps in Interviewing Analyze • read over material and interpret meaning • assisted by software (NVivo, NUDIST, Ethnograph) Verify (member check) • go back to participants and see if you have it “right” • negotiated text • what about disagreement? Report • write up • present • participants are audience too! Geog 237a

16. Interview Guide Characteristics • topics to direct conversation • minimum to be covered in conversation • allows inter-interview comparisons in interpretation • not necessarily covered in order • not a linear “roadmap” per se; more a series of unordered “signposts” • participant guides conversation too Geog 237a

17. Interview Guide Example Geog 237a

18. Interviews:Advantages/Disadvantages(e.g., compared to surveys) Advantages Disadvantages Geog 237a

19. Interviews:Advantages/Disadvantages Advantages • high validity • closer to social life • flexible • words of participants • discover the unexpected Disadvantages • no (rare) statistical analysis • labour intensive • training - researcher as instrument • weak reliability • weak generalizability Geog 237a

20. Focus GroupsCharacteristics • group interviews • 8-10 • facilitator • note taker • participants similar characteristics (e.g., all women, all against issue X) • exploration • group dynamics relevant – exchange of ideas Geog 237a

21. Focus GroupsExample • FACILITATOR: So what were the alternatives? What was the state of Ryley in 1992 when economic development seemed to be an issue? • MARGRET: It was dying like most small towns were at that time. • SADY: It’s been dying for 40 years and it hasn’t changed any from then. • FACILITATOR: What’s the population? • SADY: Including cats and dogs? • UNIDENTIFIED: 411 I think. • FACILITATOR: The last I have is ’96 statistics and it says around 500. But it could have gone down or up by then. • MARGRET: Ryley’s around 500 I would say now. • HUGO: I think, like all these little towns are dying, Holden is next and it’s 8 miles and that’s another small town. And I remember the school there when it had about 600, 650 people and now I think it’s under 400, 390. So it’s dying too. And so Ryley, they’re roughly the same size and I imagine Ryley was probably in that 500 or 600 once upon a time in the ‘50s. • Margaret: Oh lots more before that, we had all these businesses here. Geog 237a

22. Focus GroupsAdvantages/Disadvantages Advantages • approximates social conditions • new ideas • forces participants consider issues may not think of themselves • increased participant self-awareness on issue Disadvantages • researcher has less control • difficult to analyze • training – facilitator skill • difficult to obtain groups • “social conditions” contrived Geog 237a

23. Observation:Terminology covert • people do not know being studied • ethical implications? participant • the only way to truly “know” is to “do” • “method acting” for researchers? • get involved in study group Geog 237a

24. Observation:Terminology going native • researcher’s reference group is no longer academics, but group under study Hawthorne effect • act differently because special attention • different from social acceptability bias (intentional) in surveys, but related Geog 237a

25. Observation: (field research) Geog 237a

26. Observation:Advantages/Disadvantages(e.g., compared to interviews) Advantages Disadvantages Geog 237a