Introduction to Astronautics Sissejuhatus kosmonautikasse

1. Tallinn University of Technology Introduction to AstronauticsSissejuhatus kosmonautikasse Vladislav Pustõnski 2009 – 2012

2. Main goals of Astronautics andways to space • Role of Astronautics in the modern life No Astronautics means: • Back to global cable relay, decrease of speed and deterioration of quality of TV broadcast, Internet etc. • No global navigation and positioning (no GPS etc.) • Degradation of weather forecast and mapping • Limited research of the upper atmosphere, solar activity etc. • Deterioration of military reconnaissance, no precise guidance of missiles etc. • Degradation of space science: no space telescopes, no in situ research throughout the Solar System, particles and fields, no precise physical experiments, no biological experiments in space • No manned spaceflights: no International Space Station, no Moon nor planetary missions

3. Main types of spacecraft • Satellites for practical applications: • Radio relay (TV broadcast, Internet etc.) • Global navigation and positioning (GPS etc.) • Earth observations (weather forecast, mapping, global and local changes) • Applied science (research of the upper atmosphere, solar activity, radiation etc.) • Military (reconnaissance, positioning, guidance of missiles etc.) • Astronomy, physical and other sciences: • Space telescopes (optical, IR, UV, , X-ray etc.) • Solar System missions (Moon and planetary missions, missions to comets, asteroids etc.) • Research of particles and fields, spacecraft for verification of physical theories • Biological experiments • Manned space flights: • Experiments in space and servicing of unmanned spacecraft • The Space Station, long-term living in space • Manned missions to the Moon and the planets

4. Example satellites and spacecraft Navstar GPS satellite Sputnik-3 USSR research satellite Telstar communication satellite GOES-8 weather satellite Mir Space Station Apollo-16 Lunar Module and LRV Hubble space telescope Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn

5. Alternative ways to space • Tasks:use cheaper alternative methods to reach space (mostly Low Earth Orbit) • Possible with current technology: • Space gun • Electromagnetic catapult • Space plane • Ramjet/scramjet • Need for advanced technology or new materials with still unavailable properties: • Space tower • Space elevators (mostly constructions based on tethers) • Momentum exchange tethers (rotovators) • Laser propulsion

6. Rocket as launch vehicle • Fact:rocket propulsion is currently the only way to space • Old and new • Small and large • From ground, water & air • Reliable, but sometimes fail

7. End of Lecture 1

8. Communication satellites • Tasks:telephony, TV, radio, Internet, fixed services, other communication issues (i.e. communication with ISS etc.) • Passive satellites: • Echo 1A:August 12, 1960, ~30 m inflated reflecting sphere. First communication satellite • Active satellites: • Telstar 1/2:July 10, 1962, ~1 m sphere, ~80 kg. First active communication satellite (also first privately sponsored satellite). Elliptical orbit, P~2.5h, availability ~20 min/orbit • Syncom 2:July 26, 1963, first operational geosynchronous satellite (height of orbit ~ 36 000 km, P = 24h, i ~ 33º) • Syncom 3:August19, 1964, first geostationary satellite (height of orbit ~ 36 000 km, P = 24h, i ~ 0º) • Molniya-1:April 23, 1965. First soviet communication satellite. Highly elliptical orbit, apogee ~ 40 000 km, P ~ 12h, i ~ 63º, availability ~ 10 hours/2 orbits

9. Navigation satellites • Tasks:navigation, positioning, time transfer, mapping, geographical & geophysical sciences, search, tracking and rescue, location-based media • Early era: • Transit 1B:April 13, 1960. System entered service in 1964. Polar orbits, accuracy ~200 m • Kosmos-1000:March 31, 1978. Russian “Tsykada” navigation system • Modern systems: • GPS:24 satellites in 6 orbital planes (plus reserve). 1978, first experimental satellite (Block-I) • GLONASS:24 satellites in 3 orbital planes. 1982, first operational satellite. 1995 – 24 satellites, now again 24. • Galileo:30 satellites in 3 orbital planes. 2005, first esperimental satellite (GIOVE-A)

10. Weather satellites • Tasks:weather forecast, climate changes, pollution, prediction of catastrophic events (storms, typhoons etc.), long-term & short-term changes (ocean level, deserts areas, volcanoes, vegetation, snow etc.) • Early era: • TIROS I:April 1, 1960. First successful weather satellite • Kosmos-122:1966. The first USSR dedicated weather satellite • Later and present systems: • USA:GOES • Europe:Meteosat • USSR/Russia:Meteor, Meteor-M • China:Fengyun • Japan:MTSAT-1R • Weather satellites are mostly on geostationary or polar orbits

11. Research satellites • Tasks:research of atmosphere, the Sun, particles, fields, verification of physical theories, biological experiments and many more • Early era: • Sputnik-2:November 3, 1957. The first animal in space • Explorer 1:February 1, 1958. Research of space in different heights, van Allen belts discovered. First USA satellite • Later noticible missions: Explorer series, Orbital Geophysical Observatory (OGO) satellites (USA), Proton satellites (USSR heavy satellites launched by 2-stage version of Proton rocket) 3. Today’s outstanding missions • Gravity Probe B:Space experiment for verification of the general theory of relativity (2004 – 2005, data is still being analyzed) • Planck satellite:ESA space experiment to study anisotropies of cosmic microwave background (2009).

12. Space telescopes • Tasks:observations of fields and particles free of influence of the Earth’s atmosphere • Early era: • OAO:3 satellites 1968 – 81, prominent UV and X-ray space observatories • Uhuru:1970-73, famous X-ray observatory • Great Observatories: • Hubble Space Telescope (HST):launched 1990. Optical, UV, near IR. Still in service • Compton -Ray Observatory:1991 – 2000 • Chandra X-Ray Observatory:1999 – • Spitzer Space Telescope:2003 – , IR-telescope • Recent & future missions: • Kepler mission:2009. Exoplanets search through detection of stellar transits • Hershel Space Observatory:2009,ESA mission, IR & sub-mm • James Webb Space Telescope:2018 (?). IR telescope in the L2 point

13. Solar System missions • Tasks:probes to the Moon, the planets, their satellites, comets, asteroids • Early era: • Luna-1:January 2, 1959, the first solar satellite (gained the escape velocity) • Luna-2:September 12, 1959, first reached the Moon (Sep. 14) • Luna-3:October 4, 1959, first photographed the far side of the Moon • Mariner 4:First Mars fly-by, first close photos of Mars (Jul. 1965) • Venera-3: First reached the planet (Mar. 1965) • Luna-9: First lunar soft landing Feb. 6, 1966, first Moon panoramas • Luna-17: First automatic rover Lunokhod, 1970 – 71 • Pioneer 10/11: First Jupiter & Saturn fly-byes (1973, 1979), close-up images • Later outstanding missions: • Voyager 1/2:great planets fly-byes (Uranus 1986, Neptune 1989) • Viking 1/2: First Mars landers & orbiters, 1975 – 80 • Magellan:Venus high-resolution mapping, 1990 – 94 • Galileo:Jupiter orbiter & atmospheric probe, 1995 – 2003 • Mars Exploration Rovers:Twin martian rovers mission, 2004 – • Cassini/Huygens:Saturn orbiter & Titan probe, 2004 –

14. Manned orbital spacecraft • Tasks:provide flights of human beings to Low Earth Orbit, their long-term stay and work • Early era: • Vostok-1:April 12, 1961, first human to space, Yu.Gagarin • Voskhod:October 12, 1964, first spacecraft for more than one men • Voskhod-2:March 18, 1965, first spacewalk (A.Leonov) • Gemini VIII:March 1966, first docking • Soyuz-1:April 1967, first disaster and casualty (at landing), V.Komarov • Salyut:1971, first space station • New age: • Space Shuttle:1981 – 2011, first reusable space winged vehicle • Mir:1986 – 2001, first modular consistently inhabited space station • International Space Station (ISS):1998 –

15. Manned Moon and planetary missions • Tasks:flights of human beings to the Moon and the planets • Moon race, 1961- mid 1970’s: • May 25, 1961, Kennedy speech that started the Moon race • Apollo 8:December, 1968, first human beings on the lunar orbit • Apollo 11:July, 21, 1969, first lunar walk (N.Armstrong) • Apollo 13:April 1970, serious failure in the deep space, emergency return without landing • Apollo 15:1971, first car on the Moon • mid 1960’s – mid. 1970’s, USSR program (failed) • Future plans: • ISS:till 2020 • Next generation expendable manned spacecraft and heavy launch vehicles, possible return to the Moon or visits to asteroids (uncertain) • Beyond 2030: Mars exploration with manned vehicles

16. Syncom 3 geostationary communication satellite Geostatinonary orbit and Molniya orbit Syncom 3 first geostationary satellite

17. Molniya communication satellite Molniya orbit

18. TIROS I weather satellite First TV picture from space TIROS I launch

19. Sputnik-2 satellite Layka inside sealed container Model of Sputnik-2

20. Luna-3 Moon probe One of the first photos of the far side of the Moon Luna-3

21. Mars Exploration Rovers Martian panorama; landing platform MER, artistic concept

22. Vostok manned spaceship Gagarin’s reentry capsule Schematic representation of Vostok spaceship and its launch vehicle

23. Space Shuttle Space Shuttle landing after the first orbital flight Space Shuttle Columbia inauguration launch

24. Apollo program Apollo CSM on the lunar orbit Apollo 11 Lunar Module on the Moon (Buzz Oldrin is in front)

25. Soviet lunar program Moon fly-by spaceships Zond N1 rocket launch

26. Advantages: • Launch is very cheap • Problems: • High acceleration • Atmospheric drag • Need for upper stage • Historical background: • HARP • 16 inch gun, barrel 40 m, projectile • 180 kg, velocity 3,6 km/s, altitude 180 km • Project Babylon • Gerald Bull supergun project for • Iraq, parameters uncertain Space gun Columbiad of Jules Vern HARP gun shot

27. Advantages: • Launch is very cheap • Enables moderate acceletations • May be useful on small planets to propel small objects • Problems: • Even high accelerations on the Earth • Atmospheric drag • Massive bearing structure • Historical background: • Mass Driver 1 • Prototype built by students in MIT, • 1976 – 77 Electromagnetic catapult (mass driver) Electromagnetic catapult for launch from the Moon (artist’s conception)

28. Advantages: • No oxidizer onboard needed • Aerodynamic forces available • Lower thrust is sufficient for start • Problems: • Extra weight of wings • High aerodynamic drag • Complexity of engines • Harsh flight environment • Historical background: • X-20 Dyna-Soar • Rocket-launched space plane. Weight • ~5 tons 1957 – 63 • HOTOL • British government call, several tons to • orbit, 1986 – 88 • VentureStar/X-33 (prototype) • NASA call, Lockheed Martin project. • Mass ~130 tons. Cancelled 2001 Space plane Mock-up of Dyna-Soar X-33 artist’s concept

29. Advantages: • No oxidizer onboard needed • Problems: • Nonoperational at low velocities • Orbital velocity inachievable • Low trust-weight ratio • High cost • Historical background: • X-30 • DARP call. McDonnel Douglas, • Rocketdyne etc. project, mid 1980 – 93 • HyShot • University of Queensland, Australia, 2002. • First scramjet tests, rocket-launched engine • X-43 • X-43A scramjet launched by Pegasus • rocket, 2004. Glider 3,7 m long, ~1400 kg. • 3,4 km/s achieved Ramjet/scramjet Scramjet engine X-43A attached to Pegasus

30. Exotic launch systems (proposals) Rotovator Space elevator Laser propulsion, artist’s concept

31. Old rockets and new rockets Launch of Delta IV Heavy Soviet R-7 ICBM

32. Arian 5 launch Arian 5 launch

33. Small rockets and large rockets Saturn V, Energia, R-7, Vanguard

34. Ground, water & air launches Zenit-3SL sea launch Odyssey Launch Platform, Pacific Proton-K ground launch Baikonur Pegasus before its air launch aboard Lockheed L-1011 plane

35. Delta II failure Delta II failure