Understanding Motivation: Theories, Drives, and Conditioning Mechanisms

1. Motivation SECTION 1

2. Motives – reasons for our actions • Motive = cause ……… (Behavior = effect) • Needs (what we lack) • Drives (goal directed tendency) Needs + Drives =Motivation • Homeostasis – when balance is achieved (goal is met)

3. Biological Needs / DrivesA.K.A. Primary • For the survival of the individual • Hunger • Thirst • For the survival of the species • sex • Do these drives ALWAYS fill a biological need? • If not, then not primary

4. Psychological Drives:A.K.A. Secondary Drives • We are all born with these drives, but with varying thresholds: (goal is to increase or decrease tension) • Stimulation • Exploration /manipulation • Affiliation • Achievement • Learning / performance • Intrinsic rewards / incentives • Extrinsic rewards / incentives (pleasure / pain) Harry Harlow raised monkeys in social isolation which resulted in them developing mental disorders

5. More secondary drives • Dominance • Order • Aggression • Unconscious desires and hidden motives • Autonomy • Etc…….

6. Theories of Motivation • Instinct Theory • Inherent inclination, not learned • Reflex • Rooting • Reproduction • Drive Reduction Theory • drive to reduce tension caused by unfulfilled need

7. Sociocultural TheoryCultural factors influence perception of needs • cognitive dissonance -discomfort when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions: ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions • people may sometimes feel "disequilibrium": frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc

8. Humanistic Theorymotivated to grow – reach our potential Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • pyramid shape reflects population distribution • lower needs to be fulfilled prior to ascending to higher needs • Movement is constant • most people do not reach top two levels

11. Learning SECTION 2

12. Classical Conditioning • Involuntary biological response to a previously neutral stimuli • Involves stimulus, response, and association • Watson (Little Albert) • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IzRHIZyV7IA

13. PAVLOV’S DOG

15. BEFORE CONDITIONING • N - --------No response • UCS-------UCR ________________________ DURING CONDITIONING -UCS + N---------UCR _________________________ AFTER CONDITIONING -CS---------------CR

16. White lab coats-----------no response • Food----------------------salivation • food + white lab coats = salivation • White lab coats---------salivation • ***N always becomes the CS • ***UCR always becomes the CR

17. Terms • Acquisition, generalization, extinction, spontaneous recovery • Counter-conditioning • Flooding • Systematic desensitization

18. Operant Conditioning • Voluntarily engaging in behaviors that result in desirable consequence (Pleasure) • OR • Voluntarily avoiding behaviors that result in negative consequences (Pain) • Successive Approximations • Shaping • Rewards v. Punishments • Reinforcers (+ & -)increase desired behavior (always get the ‘reward’) • Punishment decreases it

21. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous • Partial • fixed interval • pay checks • fixed ratio • 3 strikes you are out • Variable interval • fishing • Variable ratio • slot machines

22. Observational Learning • Albert Bandura • Blow up clown • “monkey see, monkey do” • gave rise to the argument against violent programming • video

23. MEMORY SECTION 3

24. Types of Memory • Episodic – active, senses, emotions • Generic – passive, general knowledge • Procedural – how to

25. Three Memory Processes • Encoding : has to be meaningful • Visual, acoustic & semantic codes • Storage • Maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, organizational systems, filing errors • Retrieval • Context dependent, state dependent, tip-of-the-tongue

26. Three Stages of Memory • Sensory Memory • Iconic to eidetic; echoic • Short term memory • 7-9 bits, primacy and recency effects, chunking& interference • Chimps v humans in a memory test • Chimps ~ Short term memory better than Humans.mpg • Long term memory • Memo rizing PI

27. Additional Facts • Remembering: • Recall – ex: essay test; ‘just remember’ what learned • Recognition – ex: multiple choice; identify what was previously learned • Relearning – learning curve MUCH steeper (faster) • Forgetting (decay) • Also amnesia: • Infantile – repression; usually emotional trauma • anterograde - inability to form new memories • Reterograde – forgot events prior to trauma

28. INTELLIGENCE SECTION 4

29. The World’s Most Intelligent Person • What traits, abilities and accomplishments do they have? • In other words…..what makes them so intelligent?

30. Intelligence • Intelligence (the ability to understand and adapt to the environment) and achievement (knowledge and skills gained from experience) are not the same thing. • 1800s phrenology movement related head shape to mental functioning • 1908 Alfred Binet developed first “IQ” test • Widespread use began during WWI (1918). • The Eugenics movement followed, limiting reproductive choices of the “undeserving”

31. Theories • Spearman –believed that scores were positively correlated across subject areas • High scores in one area usually lead to high scores in other areas • This has remained a widespread belief among most scholars • Gardner - 1983 - Multiple Intelligences - 7 areas that ALL humans possess independent of one another. Experience and interest strengthen areas. Pushed for education reform. • 8 areas today (some say 9)

32. Multiple Intelligences

33. Sternberg’s Triarchic Model - 1995 – IQ ban be increased in any area by balancing practicality, analysis, and creativity. • Ex: an ‘intelligent’ athlete faced with a dilemma will analyze the situation, consider options (creativity), and put into practice which option is best. The faster this is done, the ‘more intelligent’ one is.

34. Emotional Intelligence • The fastest growing “new frontier” in intelligence. Measures 5 factors: self-awareness, mood-management, self-motivation, impulse control, and people skills. • Many large businesses today are using these tests to screen prospective employees. • Utne Quiz

35. New Models on “Learning Styles” • Gregorc “Style Delineator” • Concrete Sequential Thinkerstend to be based in reality. They process information in an ordered, sequential, linear way. • Concrete Random Thinkersare experimenters. • Abstract Random Thinkersorganize information through reflection, and thrive in unstructured, people-oriented environments. • Abstract Sequential Thinkerslove the world of theory and abstract thought. Ordered work. • Dunn & Dunn “Environmental Learning” • Environmental • Emotional • Sociological • Physiological • Psychological

37. The Test • Stanford-Binet Scales - the first tests developed in 1908. • Developed an IQ formula: • IQ = MA/CA x 100… • Weschler Tests – adapted SB test for older children and adults. Believed SB too rigid. • provided for area score differentiation • Reliability - consistency of score • Validity - measures the right thing

39. Differences • Using a standard Bell Curve , most of the population will score between 55 and 145, with 1/2 scoring between 90-110. • There are some who feel that the tests are inaccurate and do not take the whole child into consideration. • What are some examples? • Others feel that they are accurate, and that many are simply unable to achieve in any circumstances.