Chapter 10 Physical Activity and Exercise

1. Chapter 10Physical Activity and Exercise HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 3rd Edition Marks  Murray  Evans  Estacio

2. Chapter 10Physical Activity and Exercise • Extent of Physical Activity • Context of Physical Activity • Psychological Models • Meanings of Physical Activity Among Adults • Exercise Among Children • Promoting Physical Activity • Alternative Forms of Physical Activity • Summary

3. Extent of Physical ActivityModern Lifestyle • The rapid increase in technology in industrialized societies over the past generation has led to a much more sedentary lifestyle. • A recent UK survey indicated that 60% of men and 72% of women do not exercise to recommended levels. • Even walking is becoming less common. • Fortunately, there is some lesser evidence that people are taking up more leisure-time physical activity such as walks over two miles, swimming, keep fit and yoga.

4. Variation in Participation • Men from manual social classes are more active but this was due to greater occupational activity. • Adults from manual social classes participated less in sporting and leisure-related exercise activities. • One problem with many of the estimates of participation of physical activity is that they often focus on leisure-time activity, especially organized sports. • Evidence suggests that the majority of people have very sedentary working styles and most women participate little in leisure-time physical activity.

5. Physical Activity andHealth • The World Health Organization identified physical activity as a major cause of death and chronic disease worldwide. • A particular impact of inactivity has been the increase in levels of obesity in the population. Between 1980 and 2002 the rates of obesity in England increased threefold. • About two thirds of women and three quarters of men aged 55–74 years are classed as overweight or obese. Rates are higher among those from manual social classes. • This has led to a series of governmental reports recommending increased participation in physical activity.

6. Context of Physical ActivityEnvironmental Context • Environmental psychologists emphasize the importance of considering the ‘behavioural setting’. • This includes the ‘built environment’ – environments which foster inactivity, and hence obesification. • Cochrane et al. (2009) obtained environmental data for an English Midlands city and combined this with information from a community survey of participation in physical activity. • Statistical analysisidentified a number of environmental predictors of physical activitysuggesting that, the more accessible those places, the more likely people are to walk to them.

7. Cultural Context • In Western societies, the muscular physique is presented as the ideal male form. Bodybuilding exercises reflect a bodily culture that is in line with American values of masculine prowess. • Ability to attain this physical shape is promised to those who participate in various fitness gyms. However, access to these somewhat elite facilities is often restricted to those with money. • Aggressive sporting activities are also promoted among the middle class as a training ground for developing an aggressive business attitude, and also the making of useful social contacts. • Different religions have different concepts of the body.

8. Psychological ModelsTheories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behaviour • The TRA proposes that behaviour, such as physical activity and exercise, is predicted by intention to engage in such behaviour, which in turn is predicted by the individual’s attitude towards exercise and the perceived social norm. • The TPB introduced perceived behavioural control into the basic TRA model and suggested that, besides the attitudinal and social norm components, whether someone intended to behave in a certain way depended upon the extent to which they believed they had control over a particular behaviour. • Extensions of the TPB have investigated the role of a range of other psychological factors such as moral norms, affect, self-efficacy and past behaviour.

9. Social Cognitive Theory • Used extensively to explain participation in physical activity. • ‘Self-efficacy’is the common cognitive mechanism that mediates behavioural responses. • A related factor to self-efficacy is ‘self-determination’ – people will engage in many activities simply because of pure enjoyment or intrinsic motivation. • Bandura distinguishes between three forms of agency or efficacy: personal, collective and proxy. • ‘Proxy efficacy’ is the belief in the role of others in aiding achievement of desired outcomes.

10. Transtheoretical Model • Describes five stages of exercise behaviour change: • Precontemplation; • Contemplation; • Preparation; • Action; • Maintenance. • In addition to these five stages an integral part of the TTM are the processes of change which explain movement from one stage to the next. Cognitive • Consciousness raising, Dramatic relief, Environmental reevaluation, Self reevaluation, Social liberation. Behavioural • Counter conditioning, Helping relationships, Reinforcement management, Self-liberation, Stimulus control.

11. Self-Concept or Body Image • Evidence shows that exercise participation is associated with a more positively perceived body image. • Adolescents who engage in sporting activities have reported a more positive body image. • There is less investment in body image for males than for females although this would be influenced by various social and cultural factors. • Tiggemann, Martins and Churchett (2008) investigated aspectsof men's body images beyond simply adiposity and muscularity: head hair, body hair, heightand penis size, in addition to body weight and muscularity. • Men were particularly concerned about their body weight, penissize and height suggesting that men'sbody image is less one-dimensional than is often assumed.

12. Meanings of Physical Activity Among Adults • Social Class • In a study by Calnan and Williams (1991) those from working-class backgrounds adopted a functional definition of health and fitness whereas middle-class people tended to perceive exercise as not being part of their everyday activities. • Gender • Oygard and Anderssen found that level of education was positively associated with extent of participation in physical activity among females but not among males. • Age • Participation in physical activity declines with age. Explanatory factors include: a discouraging stance from younger people and fear of injury. • Ethnicity • People from ethnic minorities participate less in various physical activities. This is due both to the social and environmental constraints and differences in the perceived nature of physical activity.

13. Exercise Among Children • In the UK it has been estimated that among 2–15 year olds, four out of 10 boys and six out of 10 girls are not participating sufficiently in physical activity. • Physical activity levels established in childhood are maintained across the lifespan. Meaning of Physical Activity for Young People • Kunesh et al. (1992) conducted interviews with 11–12 year old girls in the US. Findings suggested that while at an early age boys and girls both enjoy physical activities by the time they reach puberty the girls feel that they are being excluded. • Studies confirm the importance of the various meanings associated with physical activity among children and young people.

14. Promoting Physical Activity • Population-based Strategies • Range from strategies with an environmental focus, such as the introduction of cycle lanes in cities and reducing traffic speed, to mass media campaigns. • Community-based Strategies • Interventions that have attempted to increase participation in communities have often been based upon various social cognition models, especially the TTM. • School Physical Education • Paechter (2003) found that some girls demonstrate their femininity through deliberate resistance to PE. • Boys who are poor at school sporting activities also often attract ridicule from their more athletic peers. • Clinic-based Physical Activity Programmes • Often targeted at certain sub-groups of the population including people who are overweight, elderly people or those who suffer from particular health problems.

15. Alternative Forms of Physical Activity • Dance • Attractive to men and women from different social backgrounds; • For younger people dance is an important way of playing being sexual; • Among older people it is a very enjoyable means of developing social interaction. • Walking Groups • Priest (2007) created a model of ‘the Healing Balm Effect’, which brought together seven categories concerning the healing properties of the walking experience.The categories are: Closer to What is More Natural;Feeling Safe; Being Part; Striving; Getting Away; Being Me;and Finding Meaning. • Lifestyle Sports • Frequently termed extreme sports and include such activities as bungee jumping, white water rafting, rock-climbing and surfing; • Much research has sought to explain the psychological drive behind participation in these activities.

16. Summary • The past generation has witnessed increasing interest in the health benefits of exercise. • Moderate degrees of physical activity have both physical and psychological benefits. • There is some evidence to suggest that excessive exercise can have negative health effects. • A large proportion of the populations of Western societies are sedentary. • The degree of participation declines during adolescence, especially among girls. • In adulthood, participation is lesser among females, those from poorer social positions and those from ethnic minorities. • Various psychological factors have been found to be associated with participation in both childhood and adulthood. • The meaning of exercise is linked to the varying social contexts.