“Read no history; read nothing but biography, for that is life without theory.” Benjamin Disraeli

1. “Read no history; read nothing but biography, for that is life without theory.” • Benjamin Disraeli If the government has no knowledge of aliens, then why does Title 14, Section 1211 of the Code of Federal Regulations, implemented on July 16, 1969 make it illegal for U.S. citizens to have any contact with extraterrestrials or their vehicles?

4. Early India Main Idea Early civilization arose in the Indus River Valley, flourished, and then mysteriously died out. Later India’s Vedic civilization developed a culture based on old and new beliefs.

5. Indus River flows across northwest edge of Indian subcontinent—large landmass, part of a continent Home of one of ancient world’s great river valley civilizations Indian subcontinent includes three major geographic zones Far north: Himalaya, Hindu Kush mountain systems, separating India from rest of Asia South: Deccan Plateau, high plateau receiving less rain than other parts of subcontinent Between mountains, plateau are Northern Plains, where society first developed in India India’s Geography

8. Monsoon Winds Fertile Region • Summer, monsoon winds from southwest bring warm air, heavy rains from Indian Ocean; most of annual rainfall at this time • Winter, northeast monsoons blow cool, dry air from Central Asia, drier months • Flood deposits from Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra rivers enrich soil of Northern Plains, make it very fertile • Heavy rains also add to fertility of plains • Much of rain brought to India by seasonal winds, monsoons Floods and Annual Rainfall

10. Monsoon Rains Devastating Effects • Monsoon rains flooded rivers; rivers deposited fertile silt in which farmers could grow crops • With abundance of rainfall came threat of devastation • Monsoon rains too heavy— crops, homes, lives could be lost • Monsoon rains too late, did not last long enough—people could not grow crops; famine became danger Water Critical Factor The people of India’s first civilizations depended upon the monsoons to bring the water that their crops needed.

16. Question: What problems could monsoons cause for early Indians? Answer(s): flooding or drought

17. First Civilization Cities, Settlements Indus Society • Farm communities gave rise to India’s first civilization • Developed in valley of Indus River • Began 2500 BC, when people first developed writing system • 1920s,remains of two large cities first ruins found • Harappa • Mohenjo Daro • Civilization called Harappan • Other cities, towns since uncovered • Settlements well planned, carefully laid out • Streets ran in grid pattern; major avenues twice as wide as minor streets Indus Valley Civilization People have lived in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. At first people lived as hunter-gatherers, but slowly people began to settle down in farming communities.

20. Harappa

21. Harappa

22. Mohenjo Daro

23. Mohenjo Daro

24. Mohenjo Daro

27. Life in Towns and Cities • Water came from community wells, smaller wells in courtyards of homes • Public drainage systems carried away wastewater • Walled, elevated citadel—fortress—enclosed buildings like granaries, warehouses • Homes, workshops, shrines built outside citadel • Uniformity suggests central authority in power • Economy • Economy likely based on agriculture, trade • Most probably farmed, herded livestock • In cities, many specialized in crafts like pottery, metalwork, jewelry • Indus traded goods with people nearby, distant civilizations • Traders from Indus Valley brought goods to locations as distant as Central Asia, Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia

28. Society • Few Details • Archaeologists, historians not able to learn many details about Indus society • Had writing system, but historians not able to read it • Some say Indus civilization single society, rather than collection of city-states • Similarities • People shared common tool designs, standard set of weights, measures • Suggest single authority in control • Civilization thrived from about 2500 BC to 2000 BC, then began to decline • Decline • No one knows what led to decline, or if single cause • Environmental damage suspected; flooding, disappearance of Sarasvati river • Invasion, disease may also have helped end civilization

29. Question: Why do historians know relatively little about Indus society? Answer(s): have not deciphered Indus writing

30. Origin of Aryans Archaeological Evidence • Historians not sure when Aryans arrived, where they came from • Some assume they moved from area between Caspian, Black seas • Others argue Aryans developed in northern India, did not move into area • Little archaeological evidence remains to document early Aryan period in India • Most comes from sacred writings called the Vedas • Include many details about Aryan history, society The Vedic Period Sometime after 2000 BC, a new people took control of India. Historians often refer to this group as the Aryans, from a Sanskrit word meaning “noble.” Eventually the Aryans ruled over most of India, except for the far south. This period in Indian history is often called the Vedic period.

32. Social Structure Varnas • According to oldest of the Vedas, the Rigveda, Vedic society divided into four social classes, varnas • Each played particular role in society • People of four varnas created from body of single being • Part of body from which each varna created tied to its duties • Brahmins came from mouth, source of speech, wisdom; were priests • Kshatriyas: warriors, rulers • Vaisyas: common people, farmers • Sudras: servants Vedic Society • According to the Vedas, people settled in villages smaller than cities of Indus Valley • Later groups of villages banded together under regional leaders known as rajas • Raja primarily war leader responsible for protecting people; received payments of food, money in return

35. Social Hierarchy Castes • Social hierarchy developed, some castes had more privileges than others • Not everyone belonged to a caste • Untouchables had no protection of caste law, could perform only jobs that other castes did not • Over centuries, four varnas of Vedic period divided into hundreds of smaller castes • Membership in caste determined what jobs one could hold, whom one could marry Jobs and Privileges

37. Vedic Religion • Vedic Religion • Vedas consist mostly of hymns in praise • We know much about Vedic religion as result • Prayer • People prayed to many aspects of single eternal spirit • One aspect was Indra, who ruled over heaven • Fire Sacrifices • People worshipped gods through fire sacrifices, chanting sacred hymns • Priests offered food, drink by placing on roaring fire • Complex • Rituals grew more complex • Priests said order in universe maintained only through rituals • Brahminvarna gained more influence in society

39. Indra Agni Yama

40. Question: How was Vedic society organized? Answer(s): into four social classes called varnas

41. Hinduism Main Idea The religion of Hinduism developed and evolved over a long time in India, giving rise to a variety of beliefs and practices and to other religions, including Jainism.

43. Basic Teachings of Hinduism Brahman Atman • Among most basic tenets of Hinduism, belief in Brahman, eternal being that created, preserves world • Brahman all-encompassing • Many believe human mind incapable of understanding • Hindus believe each person has atman, soul, aspect of Brahman • Atman shapes personality, cannot be destroyed, even by death • Devas, manifestations of Brahman, active in world, helping maintain order in nature One of the world’s oldest religions, Hinduism, is practiced by most people in India today. Hinduism evolved over thousands of years and was influenced by the cultures and traditions of many peoples. However a few fundamental teachings are shared by nearly all Hindus. Three devas- Brahman (creator), Vishnu (preserver), Siva (destroyer) -are particularly influential. Some believe in thousands; others worship only one as the true manifestation of Brahman.

44. Brahman Vishnu Siva (Shiva)

46. Rebirth and Salvation • Pattern of Life • Hindus believe universe, everyone in it, part of continual pattern of birth, death, and rebirth • After death atman reborn in process called reincarnation, or samsara • New Life • Nature of person’s new life shaped by karma—sum effect of deeds, actions • Good karma, reincarnated to better station in life; bad karma, lower station in life • Ultimate goal of human existence, moksha, escape from cycle of rebirth • Dharma • With moksha, atman leaves world, reunites fully with Brahman • To achieve moksha is to fulfill one’s dharma—spiritual duties, obligations • By fulfilling dharma, one creates good karma, breaks free from rebirth cycle

48. Sacred Texts The Vedas • Teachings, practices based on many texts, most sorted into one of three categories • The Vedas • Later writings inspired by the Vedas • Sacred epics • The Vedas, sacred hymns of praise, among earliest sacred texts of Hinduism • Name means “knowledge” in Sanskrit • Hindus consider Vedas to contain eternal knowledge not written by humans, revealed to them by Brahman • Parts of Vedas date back more than 3,000 years • Considered core of Hinduism even today Sacred Texts and Practices Much of Hinduism’s evolution stemmed from a number of sacred writings produced over centuries.

49. Upanishads • Sacred texts that built upon the Vedas appeared • Some, such as Upanishads, also believed to have been revealed rather than written by people • Upanishadsphilosophical reflections on the Vedas, dealing with nature of world, meaning of life • Ramayana, Mahabharata • Other sacred texts based on themes in the Vedas, but composed by sages, including two epic poems, Ramayana and Mahabharata • Each tells story, reflects on living according to Vedic teachings • Included in Mahabharata, most sacred of all Hindu texts, the Bhagavad Gita, addressing many aspects of Hindu belief, philosophy

50. Ramayana Mahabharata