Akbar, 1542-1605

1. Akbar, 1542-1605

2. Early challenges • At the time of Humayun’s death Akbar is 14 and learning the ropes of government as the new Governor of Punjab • Bairam Khan, the Persian Shia General is his mentor • The other influential person in his life is Maham Anaga, his old nurse • Soon after Humayun’s death, the general Hemu leads the Suri forces towards Delhi. Bairam Khan and Akbar defeat them decisively at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556

3. Who is in Charge? • During Akbar’s minority Bairam Khan ruled as his Gaurdian • Maham Anaga and a clique of supporters wished to use Akbar’s emotional connections to challenge Bairam Khan • The Royal women, including Hamida Banu Begum disliked each faction—Bairam Khan due to his affiliation and alleged favoritism of fellow Shias, Maham Anaga for her “low” origins and her sons uncouth behavior

4. Akbar comes into his own • While Bairam Khan was a competent administrator and re-conquered much of the old Mughal territories, his power was growing • By 1560 Akbar was old enough to dismiss the General, who left for a pilgrimage to Mecca • Adham Khan and his mother proved to be much harder to dislodge • The Malwa campaign and Baz Bahadur • The intrusion into the harem, Adham Khan’s death 1561

5. Different Directions • Expansion of Empire—Rajasthan, Central India, Sind, Kashmir, Ahmadnagar (see map) • Ties with Rajput ruling houses • Setting up of a centralized bureaucracy • Balancing power groups—Turani, Irani, Rajput, Uzbeki, etc. • Patronage of Arts and architechture • Experiments with spirituality • Reforms of law, patronage of different groups

7. Akbar’s Perspective • Appears to have favored a practical compromise between Timurid traditions and local South Asian traditions • Keenly aware of South Asian culture, taboos, symbols • Functionally illiterate, but with mastery over information—administrative, cultural, music, art, theology • Extremely independent, willing to try radical solutions • Hot tempered and sometimes restless—learnt slowly to discipline himself • Attempted to attract different men of talent to his court

8. Symbols for a new Empire • Marriage alliances and diplomacy • Tilak, Jharoka, and the new turban and hairstyle • But also continued use of khtuba and khillat • The court as a miniature representative of the empire—diversity and hierarchy • Personal and charismatic leadership—personalized interviews • Institutionalization of debates in court as a way of hearing from different groups • An absolutist monarchy (with a warmer, fuzzier image)

9. A Young Akbar in his court

10. Akbar’s Spiritual Journey • Early interest in Chisti Sufis of Ajmer • 1562 pilgrimage and birth of Prince Salim • Early translations of Mahabharata and Ramayan—conversations with yogis (ascetics), Brahmins, Jains, and others • Revocation of Jizya1564 • The Ibadat Khana debates—includes Shia, Sunni, Sufi, different Hindu groups, Jains, and Jesuits • Religious grants extended to non-muslims • Emperor declared the final legal authority

11. Jesuits at Akbar’s Court

12. Some consequences of new Religious Policies • Sulh-i Kul (Peace with all) does create good will towards the court for a majority • Effectively creates a somewhat secularist Empire (some historians see the Din-i Ilahi cult differently) • Orthodox ulema and more conservative Muslims are hostile to changes • Imperial qazi (judge) and sadr (grants manager) rebel • Unflattering history by Badauni reveals discontent

13. Differences in Opinion seen in the source • Abul Fazl’s Ain-i Akabri and Akbarnama flattering images, Akbar portrayed in an almost quasi-divine way • Badauni very critical, bitter about debates,Fazl, and heresy • Jesuits and other travelers useful texts, but misunderstand Akbar’s interest as conversion • Akbar’s own understanding and position is often lost, but not impossible to find • Motivations can be multiple from personal quest to imperial ambition • Long reign shows a steady progression towards a unique understanding of the place of religion in people’s lives

14. Break

15. Foundations of an Imperial style 1556-1605

16. A Movable Empire • Although Akbar designated three Imperial cities: Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore; his reign was one of constant movement • The Imperial camp—a massive and magnificent tent city probably was most used • The reforms in the economy, court rules, finances, and family life facilitated this mobile lifestyle, but also bring into question the ways in which scholars have understood Akbar’s court

17. The moving Court • Fixed places for Emperor and royal family, enclosed within an armed camp • Provisions for markets, banking, food, fodder, arts and crafts • Use of scouts, engineers, purchasing agents to make travel easier • Two sets of royal pavilions, one for use, one to travel ahead • Army, artisans, soldiers, family travel with court • Evidence of the independent movement of royal women: Senior women, rajput princess to natal homes and back, hunting parties, pilgrimages

18. Imperial Cities • Movement further facilitated by the presence of Imperial cities (Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Sikri) • Focus points for Imperial architecture, patronage, new courtly styles • Also several forts in key locations such as Allahabad, Chunar, Ajmer, etc. with storehouses of wealth, treasury, reserve forces

19. Allahabad Fort

20. Mobility and Empire • The Emperor’s mobility facilitated the new style of administration built on efficiency, communication, and information • Constant communication with newswriters (akhbarnawis) was facilitated with reports from provincial government and frequent inspections by the Emperor himself • The Emperor’s mobile court also facilitated one-on-one audiences with lower nobility, rural elite, and helped to limit the possibility of rebellion • The growing economy and the mobility of capital also aided travel • Remittances of mansabdars (officials) • Loans made to army units • Investment by individuals in trade (maryam-us-zamani’s ships) • Shipment of grain

21. The Trading Networks • Building of new roads—extension of Grand Trunk Rd. • Abolishment of local tolls and taxes on trade • Faujdars (imperial commanders) charged with keeping peace • New currency regulations lift the value of Mughal coinage • New carvanserais, kos minars, baolis built • Riverine systems dredged, port regulations formed, provisions made for the care of foreign travelers

22. The new Hybrid Imperial Style • Monumental architecture in red sandstone and marble • Stylistic motifs borrowed from indigenous styles—decorative motifs, pavilions, chattris

23. Panch Mahal in Fatehpur Sikri

24. Interpreting Akbar’s designs • An imperial camp in stone?—Timurid roots • An homage to the chisti Sufi designating the Imperial space as sacred (Fatehpur Sikri) • New Architecture reflects new policy of borrowing and mixing Indigenous elements • Reflects an entirely new way of thinking about urban planning and the new domestic space • Can all of these be true?

25. Decorations from the Kacchwa palaces at Amber

26. Detail of wall at Fatehpur Sikri

27. Amber: Hindu Temple, Mughal residence?

28. The Imperial Sacred Space • Sheikh Chisti’s tomb in Sikri • Note the serpentine brackets • Mixture of Islamic and indigenous building styles • Ritual use of screens

29. Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri • Radial arrangement of space • Elevated column/throne • Architecture mirroring new policy of Sulh-i Kul?

30. Multiplicity of Motives? • Humayun’s tomb in the new style • The hasht-bihisht symbolism in garden and building • The posthumous titles denoting sacredness • Containing both Timurid and Indigenous themes

31. Hybridity in Other arts • Notice central Asia/Chinese influence in the treatment of rocks • Attention to details of Krishna mythology • Mughal style apparent in the depiction of people—individualized portraits