Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity

1. Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity Managing and Protecting Ecosystems

2. The Frontier Worldview • Frontier worldview-the idea that Earth’s resources are inexhaustible and it is there more human’s to conquer it. • Contrast to Native American views that deeply respected the land and its plants and animals • Led to enormous waste of resources because of belief that they were inexhaustible • By 1850 about 80% of land was owned by U.S. government, most taken from Native Americans • By 1900 more than half of U.S. public land was given away or sold cheaply to promote settlement.

3. Case Study: Yellowstone Wolves • Between 1850 & 1900, 2 million wolves were shot, trapped, and poisoned to keep W. and Great Plains safe for livestock • 1973 U.S. Endangered Species Act  only 400 wolves remained in lower 48 states. • 1974 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS)  listed them as endangered.

4. Case Study: Yellowstone Wolves • Keystone predator: • Kept down populations of deer, moose, and coyote and provided food for scavengers • Populations then rose drastically, devastating vegetation and increasing soil erosion. • 1987 USFWS proposed introduction of gray wolves into Yellowstone, which was protested. • 1995 caught wolves in Canada and relocated • Presently less damage due to elks and coyotes.

5. Human Impacts on TerrestrialBiodiversity • Humans have disturbed 50-80% of Earth’s land surface • 82% of temperate deciduous forests cleared, fragmented, and dominated for crops and urban development • Tundra, tropical deserts, and land w/ ice are least disturbed b/c harsh conditions and poor soils are unappealing. • Humans ALONE use, waste, or destroy 10-55% of NPP of planet’s terrestrial ecosystems.

6. Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity • Global extinction rates of species are at least 100 to 1,000X’s what it was before humans existed • Rate currently 1%/year • Threats to increase sharply by 2018 • Convention on Biological Diversity of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio was ratified by 178 countries: • National surveys of wildlife • Establishment of parks and reserves • Assessment and protection of endangered species.

7. Human Impacts on Terrestrial Biodiversity • Both the needy poor and the largest amount of biodiversity that is vanishing is located in developing countries. • We can’t address one without the other.

8. Arctic Circle Arctic Circle 60° EUROPE NORTH AMERICA ASIA 30°N Tropic of Cancer Atlantic Ocean AFRICA Pacific Ocean Pacific Ocean 0° 150° 120° 90° 30°W 0° 60°E 90° 150° SOUTH AMERICA Indian Ocean Tropic of Capricorn AUSTRALIA 30°S Antarctic Circle 60° ANTARCTICA Critical and endangered Threatened Stable or intact Projected Status of Biodiversity 1998–2018

9. Human Population Size and resource use Human Activities Agriculture, industry, economic production and consumption, recreation Direct Effects Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems Alteration of natural chemical cycles and energy flows Changes in number and distribution of species Pollution of air, water, and soil Indirect Effects Loss of biodiversity Climate change

10. What Can We Do? • Two approaches: • 1. Species approach- to protect species from premature extinction • 2. Ecosystem approach- protect populations of species and their natural habitats  affects all others of ecosystems. • **Notice importance of habitat!

11. The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach Goal Goal Protect populations of species in their natural habitats Protect species from premature extinction Strategies Strategy • Identify endangered species • Protect their critical habitats Preserve sufficient areas of habitats in different biomes and aquatic systems Tactics Tactics • Protect habitat areas through private purchase or government action • Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas • Manage protected areas to sustain native species • Restore degraded ecosystems • Legally protect endangered species • Manage habitat • Propagate endangered species in captivity • Reintroduce species into suitable habitats

12. Conservation Biology • Multidisciplinary science • Started in 1970 • Use emergency responses to slow down human’s destruction and degradation of biodiversity • Conservationists identify hot spots- most endangered species-rich systems, and take action. • Endemic plants- Those found nowhere else on Earth.

14. Public Lands in U.S. • >35% of U.S. land is managed by federal government—More than any other country • 73% of federal public lands in Alaska, and 22% in western states • Public lands can be classified into three categories: • Multiple–use lands, which include National Forests (National Forest Service) and National resource lands (Bureau of Land Management); • Moderately–restricted use lands, which include National Wildlife Refuges (U.S. Fish and Wildlife); • Restricted–use lands, which include National Parks (National Park Service), and the National Wilderness Preservation System.

15. National parks and preserves National forests (and Xs) National wildlife refuges

16. Public Lands in U.S. • National Forest System • Run by U.S. Forest Service (part of Department of Agriculture) • i.e. Hoosier National Forest • 155 forests, 22 grasslands • Used for logging, mining, livestock farming, oil and gas extraction and recreation. • National Resource Lands • Managed by Bureau of Land Management (BLM) • Used for mining, oil and gas, livestock grazing

17. Public Lands in U.S. • National Wildlife Refuges • Managed by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) • Most protect habitats and breeding areas for waterfowl and big game • Some protect endangered species from extinction • Permitted activities: hunting trapping fishing, mining, logging, and grazing

18. Public Lands in U.S. • National Park System • More restricted use • Managed by National Park Service (NPS) • 56 major parks, 331 national recreation areas, monuments, and historic sites. • 1,100 all over the world for other countries’ programs • Human activities threaten them due to: • Noise, congestion, eroded trails • Off-road vehicles, damage to vegetation • Nonnative species introduction • Water pollution

19. Solutions National Parks • Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands • Add new parkland near threatened parks • Buy private land inside parks • Locate visitor paring outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks • Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs • Survey wildlife in parks • Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance • Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers • Increase number and pay of park rangers • Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours • Seek private donations for park maitenance and repairs

20. Public Lands in U.S. • National Wilderness Preservation System • Collectively unites all 760 individual wilderness areas. • Wilderness zones lie within other types of public lands and managed by agencies in charge of those lands • Storehouses for biodiversity and centers of natural evolution • Only non-motor sports allowed • U.S. Wilderness Act of 1964-"...lands designated for preservation and protection in their natural condition...""...an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man..."

21. Public Lands in U.S. • 3/30/09 Obama signed the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 (Public law 111-11) into law which designated 52 new wilderness areas and added acreage to 26 existing areas, a total addition to the NWPS of over 2 million acres. • The most land to go into the system on record was during the Reagan administration in 1984.

22. Other Types of Reserves • Biosphere reserves- • UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) created the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. • Goal: To establish a least one biosphere reserve in each of the earth’s 193 biogeographical zones. • Today, more than 425 exist • Have a core area (protected from human activities) surrounded by buffer zone (sustainable activities and recreation) and a final, outer, transition zone (more intensive but sustainable activities)

23. Biosphere Reserve Core area Buffer zone 1 Buffer zone 2 Tourism and education center Human settlements Research station

24. Management of U.S. Public Lands • Conservation biologists • Protect biodiversity and habitats • Users-pay approach • All users or extractors of resources should be responsible for environmental damage. • Economists and developers: • Sell public lands to corporations • Slash federal funding • Repeal or modify Endangered Species Act • Wise-use approach- public lands should be managed wisely and scientifically to provide needed resources

25. Major Types of Forests • Biomes with forests: boreal, temperate and tropical. • Three types of forests 1. Old-growth- uncut or regenerated that hasn’t been seriously disturbed by humans or natural disasters for 200+ years • Storehouses of biodiversity b/c lots of ecological niches • 63% of world’s forests • Russia, Canada, Brazil, New Guinea, etc.

26. Major Types of Forests 2. Second-growth- stand of trees from secondary succession after removal by humans or natural forces • Decent biodiversity • 22% of all forests 3. Tree plantations (farms)- uniformly aged trees of one species (monoculture) that are harvested by clear-cutting and then replanted • Low diversity • 20% of all forests

27. Weak trees removed Seedlings planted Clear cut 25 15 10 30 Years of growth 5

28. Two Forest Management Systems • Even-aged management (industrial forestry)- maintaining trees in given stand at about same age and size for harvesting • Tree plantations replace biodiverse old-growth or second-growth forests • Uneven-aged management- variety of tree species at many ages and sizes to foster natural regeneration • For biodiversity, sustainable production of timber, wildlife, and recreation.

29. Harvesting Trees 1st Build roads • Habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss • Increased erosion and sediment runoff • Exposure to pests and nonnative species • Access to miners, farmers, and off-road vehicles 2nd Harvest trees • Various methods, such as selective cutting, shelterwood cutting, seed-tree cutting, and clear-cutting

30. Cleared plots for grazing Highway Highway Cleared plots for agriculture Old growth Figure 11-9bPage 201

31. Harvesting Trees • Selective cutting- removing intermediate age or mature trees in an uneven-aged forest cut singly or in small groups • Reduces crowding and encourages growth and regeneration • Protects site from erosion and wind damage • High-grading- selective cutting in many tropical forests to remove only largest and best trees. Many other trees damaged in process due to hanging vines.

32. Selective Cutting

33. Harvesting Trees • Shelterwood cutting- removing all mature trees in area in 2-3 cuttings over a certain period of time • Seed-tree cutting- loggers harvest nearly all trees, but leave a few evenly distributed seed-producing trees

34. Shelterwood Cutting Cut 2 Cut 1 Seed-Tree Cutting

35. Harvesting Trees • Clear-cutting- all trees removed • Shelterwood and seed-tree cutting are forms of this that occur in 2 or more phases • Strip-cutting- clear-cutting variation that provides sustainable timber yield w/o widespread destruction. • Less fragmentation

36. Clear-Cutting Uncut Cut Cut Cut Uncut 1 year ago 3–5 years ago 6–10 years ago Strip Cutting Cutting methods video clip Figure 11-10ePage 202

37. Trade-Offs Clear-Cutting Forests Disadvantages Advantages Reduces biodiversity Disrupts ecosystem processes Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats Leaves moderate to large openings Increases soil erosion Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes Eliminates most recreational value for several decades Higher timber yields Maximum economic return in shortest time Can reforest with genetically improved fast- growing trees Short time to establish new stand of trees Needs less skill and planning Best way to harvest tree plantations Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlight for growth

38. Deforestation • Deforestation- temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture or other uses. • Human activities have reduced Earth’s forest cover by 20-50% • Deforestation is still continuing at an rapid, exponential rate (0.3-0.8%/year), except in most temperate forests in N. America and Europe • Over 4/5 of losses taking place in tropics • Most common use of wood? Fuel!!!!

39. Biomass as Fuel • Historically, and certainly before the industrial revolution in developed countries, forests were cleared to use the wood for fuel. • In 2000, an estimated 1.8 billion cubic meters of fuelwood were used globally • Deforested trees or charcoal derived from them are used as fuel by many in developing countries today. • In tropical locations, 80% of all wood used goes toward fuel or charcoal production. • Selling charcoal is a source of income for many.

40. Natural Capital Degradation Deforestation • Decreased soil fertility from erosion • Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems • Premature extinction of species with • specialized niches • Loss of habitat for migratory species such as • birds and butterflies • Regional climate change from extensive clearing • Releases CO2 into atmosphere from burning • and tree decay • Accelerates flooding

41. Tropical Deforestation • Tropical forests: • Cover 6% of Earth’s land area, but once covered at least 2X’s as much, (since 1950) • Contain more than 50% of terrestrial plant and animal species • **Center for Interaction Forestry Research says the rapid spread in cattle ranching is the biggest threat to the Amazon’s tropical forests!

42. What’s the Problem? • Tropical rainforests provide chemicals as blueprints for making most of world’s prescription drugs! • Clearing of tropical rainforests results in: • Loss of natural cloud cover and rainfall that is produced by the rainforest itself due to transpiration. Fewer trees = less rain in rainforest • CO2 released through burning of the trees as they’re cleared that act as a storehouse for carbon when intact • Positive feedback • This affects the climates of the entire world.

43. Case Study: Brazil • Brazil • Contains 40% of world’s remaining tropical forests in Amazon • Without aggressive action may largely disappear in 40-50 yrs • Their Atlantic coastal rainforest is 93% cleared! • Growing of sugar cane for ethanol • Soybeans • Cattle grazing • Timber plantations • Brazil deforestation

44. The Incredible Neem Tree • Broadleaf evergreen member of mahogany family • Quickly reforests degraded land (5-7yrs) • Grows well in semiarid conditions • Provides fuel wood, lumber, and lamp oil • Extracts from seeds and leaves: • Fight bacterial, viral, and fungal infections • Contains natural pesticides that kill > 200 insect species • Potential for male birth control pill.

45. Case Study: Costa Rica • Once covered by tropical forests, but b/t 1963 and 1980, powerful ranching families cleared much of its forest to graze cattle. • Mid 1970’sestablished system of national parks and reserves, consolidated into 8 megareserves • Each has protected inner core surrounded by buffer zones that local people can use. • Eliminated subsidies for converting forests to cattle grazing land • Pays landowners to maintain forests.

46. Case Study: Costa Rica • As part of the U.S. Tropical Forest Conservation Act, in 2007 the U.S. granted Costa Rica the largest debt-for-nature swap on record at that time. • CR owed the U.S. over $90 million. • U.S. and two NGO’s (nongovernmental organizations) contributed $14 million to help pay down $26 million of the loan (at a discounted rate.) • CR reduced their debt and generated money for their environment. • They are required to use the money they would have paid for the loan for forest conservation efforts.

47. Llanuras de Tortuguero Guanacastle Arenal La Amistad Bajo Tempisque Cordillera Volcanica Central Pacifico Central Peninsula Osa Caribbean Sea Nicaragua Costa Rica Pacific Ocean Panama

48. Solutions Reducing Deforestation and Degradation Sustaining Tropical Forests Prevention Restoration Protect most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Phase out subsidies that encourage unsustainable forest use Add subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps, conservation easements, and conservation concessions Certify sustainably grown timber Reduce illegal cutting Reduce poverty Slow population growth Reforestation Rehabilitation of degraded areas Concentrate farming and ranching on already-cleared areas

49. Logging • Removal of trees for timber, paper, and other goods • Deforestation is just to get rid of the trees. • 2/3 wood consumed in U.S. wasted (how?) • Big debate on logging in National Forests

50. Trade-Offs Logging in U.S. National Forests Advantages Disadvantages Provides only 4% of timber needs Ample private forest land to meet timber needs Has little effect on timber and paper prices Damages nearby rivers and fisheries Recreation in national forests provides more local jobs and income for local communities than logging Decreases recreational opportunities Helps meet country’s timber needs Cut areas grow back Keeps lumber and paper prices down Provides jobs in nearby communities Promotes economic growth in nearby communities