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1. http://static.panoramio.com/photos/original/24652377.jpg http://www.alanbauer.com/images/Patterns%20in%20Nature/Spider%20web%20with%20dew.jpg http://www.cvps.com/osprey/images/nest.jpg http://www.icis.com/blogs/asian-chemical-connections/black-bear.jpg http://weekinthenee.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/sheep1.jpg http://news.uns.purdue.edu/images/+2004/hornet-nest.jpg

2. Natural Fibers History of the principal natural fibers used in textiles for apparel and home fashion http://www.fabriclink.com/university/history.cfm http://independentstitch.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/yarn.jpg

3. linen mummy-wrapping. Measures 45 mm Earliest Known Neolithic Cloth – Linen http://www.ancientresource.com/lots/egyptian/mummy_wrappings.html Neolithic (New Stone Age) 6000 BC – 3000 BC The first evidence of woven linen (flax) cloth dates back to the early 6th millennium BC in Turkey, but Western Europe did not produce any known flaxen cloth until about 3000 BC. Also found in Turkey is evidence of some of the first known fiber-dying. Red-dyed thread from 6000 BC was found at Catal Huyuk. The recent discovery (1998) of a piece of preserved linen cloth in a burial mound in Central Moravia exhibits extraordinarily fine craftsmanship. It likely dates back to 3800 BC. At Swiss ‘lake dwelling’ archeological sites (3000 BC), pieces of well-made flax cloth with elaborately fringed areas and overall patterns have been found. In addition a small amount of spun thread was found at the same location suggesting that cloth production was rather developed in that area. There is also evidence that the linen made in this area was dyed in patterns. The reason for this may lie in the fact that the domestic sheep, bearer of wool fibers, did not yet possess its full fluffy coat during the Neolithic. The oldest sheep bones in Britain date back to 3700 BC, but this ancestor of the modern sheep likely had “a short hairy, outer coat composed of bristly fibers knows as kemps which obscure an even shorter, fine woolly undercoat” (Ryder 1981). Short, course fibers are not suitable for spinning and are not great for felting. Therefore it was only after the domestication and selective breeding of sheep that man was able to harvest fiber from the animal. http://bhowc.wordpress.com/category/prehistory/ http://library.thinkquest.org/C0116982/HTML%20page%20folder/hwrapping.htm

4. A Short History of Flax The Egyptians were masters of fine linens - items found in Egyptian tombs display threads so fine they were woven to 200 threads per inch. Before 3000 BC they had mastered working with linen to the extent of creating intricately seamed, fringed and pleated garments [Barber]. The Bible contains dozens of linen references, as in Exodus chapters 26-28 where it describes the construction of the Arc of the Covenant. Forget the myth that linens were always white, because these verses often refer to scarlet and purple linens. Medieval linen was used for ropes, clothing, and all sorts of utilitarian fabric such as towels and tablecloths. It was most commonly woven in tabby (“linen” weave), but fancier fabrics can be found; fancy twills, woven laces like Huck, diaper, Damask, and brocades. Linen was instrumental as a ground fabric for many textile products; tapestries, most embroidery, and many wool and silk brocades were held together by linen. http://www.geocities.com/anne_liese_w/Fibers/fiberflax.htm http://www.salemhistory.net/images/flax_1.jpg http://robertcomptonpottery.com/CH-Textiles-New_Zealand.htm After processing the flax fiber is dried on the ground. Stalks of New Zealand flax after harvesting

5. The Art and History of Weaving BySusan C. Wylly, Professor of Art, Georgia College & State University It is my pleasure to introduce you to a glimpse of our weaving heritage. This presentation will include some of the vital historical developments in the area of weaving and will also acquaint you with a variety of loom types, starting with the prehistoric and moving into the more complex modern-day machine. A Brief History of Weaving Weaving is the systematic interlacing of two or more sets of elements usually, but not necessarily, at right angles, to form a coherent structure. No one knows when or where the weaving process actually began, but as far back as there are relics of civilized life, it is thought that weaving was a part of developing civilizations. Because of the perishable nature of textile goods, information found about the beginning stages of weaving is sketchy, and tracing the development of textiles is a difficult task and a tremendous challenge. Due to nature's hazards of erosion, climatic conditions, insects, and fire, few examples of early woven fabrics survived. Therefore, much of what is written about primitive weaving is based on speculation. There are, however, certain circumstances under which remnants of fabrics have survived: arid regions, bog lands, sealed tombs, and extremely cold areas. Because of these artifacts, we are fortunate to have some examples of early textiles and weaving tools. The everyday needs of our prehistoric ancestors probably led them to create objects using fiber as a medium. It is thought that ancient humans instinctively used weaving as an aid in their quest for basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing. It is not unlikely that people might have realized the possibilities of the woven structure after observing spider webs, birds' nests, or the construction of a beaver's dam. These findings probably led to the interlacing of twigs or vines, and resulted in netting which surely assisted humans in catching fish and trapping game. In addition, by using twining or braiding techniques, it is likely that primitive people learned to make mats to cover floors of huts, which helped insulate against dampness or cold. Eventually, people used weaving skills to make exterior coverings for shelters, so they would be somewhat protected from harsh weather and/or from predators. Archeologists believe that basket making and weaving were probably the first "crafts" developed by humans. Once primitive people learned ways of creating a woven structure, the possibilities were endless: netting, coverings for huts, containers for goods, carriers for the young, rugs, blankets, hammocks, pouches, body coverings. Along with our ancestors' ongoing quest for survival, there is evidence of an unconstrained desire by humans to embellish the objects created. The use of natural dyes on reeds or the combination of varying sizes and colors of weaving elements to create patterns, was likely an an attempt to express individualism and an aesthetic sensibility. Human beings naturally have a strong compulsion to be creative, and our records show that this trait was prevalent in our ancestors' lives thousands of years ago. Research indicates that cultures on every continent devised crude looms and methods of making webs, and further study tells that us there was great similarity in the looms constructed and in the weavings produced. http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/PR/Weaving.html http://www.mythinglinks.org/euro~west~greece.html

6. The Prehistoric Origins of Weaving With modern sophisticated methods of radiocarbon testing and DNA testing, today's scientists are much better able to assign accurate dates to archeological findings than they were even a decade ago. The exact date of the first handwoven works, however, continues to remain a mystery. Nevertheless, there is evidence of cloth being made in Mesopotamia and in Turkey as far back as 7000 to 8000 BC. Since fabric remnants have been difficult to find, to say the least, some historians use other sources as guides in piecing together our textile heritage. One valued artifact is the funerary model of a weaver's workshop, which was found in an Egyptian tomb. This model contains a horizontal loom, warping devices and other tools, and weavers in action. We can also take note of the garments worn by the people. Ex. 2, Neolithic pottery with weave imprint, found in the Thames near Mortlake; from the British Museum. Ex. 1. Funerary model of a weaver's workshop. Egypt, 19th century B.C.E. Another artifact, which is highly valued, is the piece of pottery below with the imprint of a textile structure etched in its exterior. It is believed that an early craftsperson formed this pot by lining the interior of a woven basket with wet clay. Heat was provided to shrink and harden the clay, at which time, the basket fell away leaving its mark on the outside of the pot. http://www.faculty.de.gcsu.edu/~dvess/ids/fap/weav.html

7. Click: Ancient weaving Click: Weaving on a loom Click: Weaving on a loom

8. The Warp-Weighted Loom, Worldwide, 7000 BCE by Kristy Beauchesne, Sun Eoh and Kate McCloskyThe loom consists of two vertical uprights, a horizontal warp beam, a shed rod, a heddle rod, and weights. The warp threads are tied to the horizontal beam at the top and hang down vertically towards the ground. The weights, in this case, made of clay, are then attached to the ends of the warp threads, which are then grouped together and tied so that the spun threads don't untwist. The warp-weighted loom greatly increased weaving efficiency and allowed weavers to create huge, magnificent works and tapestries. http://www.vroma.org/images/mcmanus_images/loom.jpg A photoblog showing how eastern Tibet looked in the 1920s and how the same places and people look now. Based on the explorations of botanist Joseph Rock. http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/hsc00b.htm http://drjosephrock.blogspot.com/2005/04/road-to-minya-konka-part-2-djesi-la.html

9. Spinning And Weaving Spinning is the art of twisting together a number of filaments or fibers in such a manner that a thread or line of greater length than the single fibers of which it is composed is produced. So ancient is this art that nothing is known of its beginning. Herodotus, Ovid, and other classic historians tell of spindle and distaff spinning. The flax was wound about the distaff with one end inserted in a slit at the top of the spindle, which is a stick ten or twelve inches long. The weight of the spindle continually carried down the thread as it was formed. A great improvement on the spindle and distaff was the hand spinning wheel. When or by whom this was invented is not known. An excellent thread was made with this wheel; but the process was slow and laborious, and as a consequence the weaving industry was very much circumscribed. The invention of the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves in 1764 revolutionized weaving as well as spinning. By substituting the mechanical for the manual process, one person could spin as much as twenty persons could with the spinning wheel. http://chestofbooks.com/crafts/needlework/Scientific-Sewing-And-Garment-Cutting/Spinning-And-Weaving.html Grecian Vertical Loom. Indian Out-Door Loom.

10. SILKWORM AND THE FAMILY There are many indigenous varieties of wild silk moths found in a number of different countries. The key to understanding the great mystery and magic of silk, and China's domination of its production and promotion, lies with one species: the blind, flightless moth, Bombyx mori. It lays 500 or more eggs in four to six days and dies soon after. The eggs are like pinpoints – one hundred of them weigh only one gram. From one ounce of eggs come about 30,000 worms which eat a ton of mulberry leaves and produce twelve pounds of raw silk. The original wild ancestor of this cultivated species is believed to be Bombyx mandarina Moore, a silk moth living on the white mulberry tree and unique to China. The silkworm of this particular moth produces a thread whose filament is smoother, finer and rounder than that of other silk moths. THE SECRET OF SERICULTURE Producing silk is a lengthy process and demands constant close attention. To produce high quality silk, there are two conditions which need to be fulfilled – preventing the moth from hatching out and perfecting the diet on which the silkworms should feed. Chinese developed secret ways for both. * The eggs must be kept at 65 degrees F, increasing gradually to 77 degrees at which point they hatch. After the eggs hatch, the baby worms feed day and night every half hour on fresh, hand-picked and chopped mulberry leaves until they are very fat. Also a fixed temperature has to be maintained throughout. Thousands of feeding worms are kept on trays that are stacked one on top of another. A roomful of munching worms sounds like heavy rain falling on the roof. The newly hatched silkworm multiplies its weight 10,000 times within a month, changing color and shedding its whitish-gray skin several times. *The silkworms feed until they have stored up enough energy to enter the cocoon stage. While they are growing they have to be protected from loud noises, drafts, strong smells such as those of fish and meat and even the odor of sweat. When it is time to build their cocoons, the worms produce a jelly-like substance in their silk glands, which hardens when it comes into contact with air. Silkworms spend three or four days spinning a cocoon around themselves until they look like puffy, white balls. *After eight or nine days in a warm, dry place the cocoons are ready to be unwound. First they are steamed or baked to kill the worms, or pupas. The cocoons are then dipped into hot water to loosen the tightly woven filaments. These filaments are unwound onto a spool. Each cocoon is made up of a filament between 600 and 900 meters long! Between five and eight of these super-fine filaments are twisted together to make one thread. *Finally the silk threads are woven into cloth or used for embroidery work. Clothes made from silk are not only beautiful and lightweight, they are also warm in cool weather and cool in hot weather. http://www.silk-road.com/artl/silkhistory.shtml

11. Literary sources such as The Book of History, and The Book of Rites give further information about sericulture. Reeling silk and spinning were always considered household duties for women, while weaving and embroidery were carried out in workshops as well as the home. In every silk-producing province the daughters, mothers and grandmothers of every family devoted a large part of the day for six months in a year to the feeding, tending and supervision of silkworms and to the unraveling, spinning, weaving, dyeing and embroidering of silk. By the fifth century BC, at least six Chinese provinces were producing silk. Each spring, the empress herself inaugurated the silk-raising season, for silk production was the work of women all over China. The technique and process of sericulture were guarded secrets and closely controlled by Chinese authorities. Anyone who revealed the secrets or smuggled the silkworm eggs or cocoons outside of China would be punished by death. SILK DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA When silk was first discovered, it was reserved exclusively for the use of the ruler. It was permitted only to the emperor, his close relations and the very highest of his dignitaries. Within the palace, the emperor is believed to have worn a robe of white silk; outside, he, his principal wife, and the heir to the throne wore yellow, the color of the earth. Gradually the various classes of society began wearing tunics of silk, and silk came into more general use. As well as being used for clothing and decoration, silk was quite quickly put to industrial use by the Chinese. This was something which happened in the West only in modern times. Silk, indeed, rapidly became one of the principal elements of the Chinese economy. Silk was used for musical instruments, fishing-lines, bowstrings, bonds of all kinds, and even rag paper, the word's first luxury paper. Eventually even the common people were able to wear garments of silk. During the Han Dynasty, silk ceased to be a mere industrial material and became an absolute value in itself. Farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk. Silk began to be used for paying civil servants and rewarding subjects for outstanding services. Values were calculated in lengths of silk as they had been calculated in pounds of gold. Before long it was to become a currency used in trade with foreign countries. This use of silk continued during the Tang as well. It is possible that this added importance was the result of a major increase in production. It found its way so thoroughly into the Chinese language that 230 of the 5,000 most common characters of the mandarin "alphabet" have silk as their "key". http://www.silk-road.com/artl/silkhistory.shtml http://silktrading.win.mofcom.gov.cn/www/12%5Csilktrading%5Cimg%5C2007821125150.jpg Women striking and preparing silk, painting by Emperor Huizong of Song, early 12th century. http://www.filterforge.com/filters/1414.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_silk

12. Hides are skins obtained from animals for human use. Examples of animal hide sources are deer and cattle typically used for producing leather, alligator skins, snake skins for shoes and fashion accessories and wild cats, minks and bears, whose skins are primarily sought for their fur. In India leather is produced from cattle hides at home/ small scale but most leather making is done on a large scale. Various tannins are used for this purpose. Leather from processed hides finds a variety of uses from shoes and clothing to furniture and sometimes wall or surface coverings. Anthropologists believe that animal hides provided an important source of clothing for prehistoric humans. Animal hides were also frequently believed to be used for shelter by primordial peoples. Hides of animals were also used for tents in the months of summer by Inuit people. Many American Indians used animal hides to build houses such is tepees and wigwams. The Arctic Indians also used this material for waterproof clothes and kayaks as well as for their houses. Until the invention of plastic drumheads in the 1950s, animal hides were used. Animal hides have always been used as a status symbol. Fur was used to demonstrate wealth, both by ancient kings and modern people. Natural leather is used in many expensive products, including limousines and designer mobiles phones. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hides http://bhowc.files.wordpress.com/2006/03/hunebed3.jpg

13. The clothing that was found on the Iceman is the first time Neolithic clothing has been found so well preserved. A description of his clothing can give us an idea of how people dressed and the methods and textiles they used to create such clothing. The clothing of the Iceman consisted of a cap, his upper garment, a pair of leggings, a loincloth, a pair of shoes and a cloak. The cap was made from individually cut pieces of fur sewn together. Attached to the cap were two leather straps probably used as a chin strap. The upper garment looks like a cloak or cape. The material is the hide of a deer that probably had fur on one side. It is also sewn together by various pieces and was worn with the fur on the inside. It probably came down to his knees and had no sleeves. It is suggested that he wore the hide side in warmer weather as the Eskimos do to this day, thus a prehistoric reversible coat! The leggings found on the iceman were made of the same material of both the cap and cloak, fur and hide. It was also made of several separate pieces of fur sewn together. It was like a long stocking without the foot section. In fact it covered the thigh as well as the calf and was worn loose to allow for movement. He was not wearing pants, instead he had two separate leggings. Since he wore no pants, he had a loincloth to protect his genital area. The loincloth is not made of fur as the other garments yet made solely of leather. It consisted of a front flap that went down to his knees. Its shape looked like a scarf tied to his waist. The shoes were also made of leather strapped together with leather straps. The leather was made of cowhide. For warmth the shoes had no fur, instead they were stuffed with grass inside. Over his fur garments the Iceman was found wearing a coat made of grass. The coat went down to his knees and was tied around his neck. http://www1.american.edu/TED/iceman.htm http://mr_sedivy.tripod.com/iceman4.html

14. Hallmarks of Stone Age Clothing As a result, it has been speculated that Neanderthals may have been the first to dye or bleach hides. A bleaching detergent can be made from stale urine which can render a hide white. Next, a dye made from ochre can be applied which would render an ochre red or ochre yellow hide. This would have been a rather long, somewhat difficult process and most likely hides of a special color would have been used for special occasions such as ceremonies or for individuals of special rank. Neanderthals may have been the first to wear shoes, although studies of toes bones of older species indicate that they, too, may have worn shoes. “All people living in very cold climates had to wear some kind of thermal protection on their feet, including Neanderthals and their predecessors. (Supportive footwear) was part of a major explosion in human technology and cultural complexity, especially after 30,000 years ago.”(Trinkaus, Erik from an interview with By Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News, Aug. 19, 2005) The oldest direct evidence of the use of shoes, however, are Native American sandals from about 5000 BC. Like all skins and hides, those that were used to create earlier footwear have been lost to the sands of time. The only way scientists know that early humankind were wearing shoes is from the study of toe bones. Apparently the shape and placement of foot bones began to change 40,000-30,000 years ago. Shoes reduce the stress placed on lesser toes and cause them to do less work. This made them different from the toes of earlier humans, who had strong, well-developed toes that came from gripping surfaces without the aid of footwear. Due to the ravages of time, the shape and design of the earliest footwear have been lost. “While we have no evidence for sewing before some 30,000 years ago or so, that does not mean that people did not wear clothing — aka body coverings — before, just likely not sewn clothes. The same is likely for footwear.” (Soffer, Olga from an interview with By Jennifer Viegas, Discovery News, Aug. 19, 2005) Experts think that the one outstanding feature common to early shoes are stiff soles. Early leather and/or fur shoes were one-piece affairs without separate uppers. Scientists have also found evidence of grass sandals, bark shoes and sandals, leather sandals or fur boots, depending on climate. There is reason to believe that some of the earliest shoes were a combination of leggings and sandals, much to the effect of ‘footsie’ pajamas. Bronze Age Leather Shoe Found in the Netherlands Illustrating Classic 1-Piece Construction

15. Ancient Greek Clothing http://cd7.e2bn.net/e2bn/leas/c99/schools/cd7/website/Greece.htm http://www.culturalchina.com/chinaWH/images/exbig_images/b26cda66c221adfd80f37804dd82997e.jpg Han Chinese Clothing Ancient Roman Clothing http://karenswhimsy.com/ancient-roman-clothing.shtm