Introduction to Philosophy

1. Introduction to Philosophy Part III Epistemology & Metaphysics

2. Epistemology • Introduction • Epistemology • Some Classic Problems • Some Classic Questions • Some Basic Concepts • Rationalism • A priori knowledge • Innate Ideas • Empiricism • A posteriori knowledge • No innate ideas • Justified, True Belief

3. Plato’s Epistemology & Metaphysics • Introduction • Knowledge & Opinion • Argument against relativism (Theatetus) • Relative • Self Refuting • Protagoras • First Problem of the Senses: Change • Changing world • Cannot have certainty • Appear at a specific time • Source of knowledge • Senses cannot be a source of knowledge

4. Plato’s Epistemology & Metaphysics • Second Problem of the Senses: Definitions • Objects of knowledge must be universal & unchanging • Unchanging definitions are necessary • Language would not work • Perfect Standard Argument • Physical things fall short • Knowledge of something perfect • Knowledge cannot come from sensess • Knowledge is Not Right Opinion • Right opinion (true belief) vs. knowledge • True opinion • Account • Rational justification

5. Plato’s Epistemology & Metaphysics • Knowledge is • Objective • Not obtained by the senses • Universal • Changeless • Based in reason • The Forms & Ideas • Particulars (tokens) & categories (types) • Universal/form • Eternal • Changeless • Perfect

6. Plato’s Epistemology & Metaphysics • Participation • Idea • The Doctrine of Recollection (Meno) • Meno’s Paradox • Acquiring knowledge • Communing with the forms • Forgetting • Doctrine of Recollection

7. Plato’s Epistemology & Metaphysics • Plato’s Metaphysics • The Forms • Real, objective, independent, unchanging • Not spatial or temporal • Participation problem • Change • Paradox of Change • Heraclitus • Parmenides • Platonic compromise • Particulars: changing, imperfect, object of opinion

8. Plato’s Epistemology & Metaphysics • Particulars • Reality comes in degrees • The forms are causes of particulars • Particulars resemble the forms • Particulars participate in the forms in varying degrees • The forms group particulars into types, making them intelligible.

9. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Lovers of Opinion & Lovers of Wisdom • Philosophers • The One & the Many • Two • Each is One • The Many • Sights, Dreams, Opinion & Knowledge • Lovers of sounds & Sights • Life is a dream • One is awake • Absolute beauty • Forms & objects • Knowledge & Opinion

10. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Being & Non-Being Argument • One who knows, knows something. • Absolute beauty may be absolutely known. • The utterly non-existent is utterly unknown. • Anything that can be and not be will be between pure being and absolute negation of being. • Knowledge corresponds to being and ignorance to non being. • Spheres & Faculties Argument • Faculties are powers in us. • What has the same sphere & same result is the same faculty. • What has another sphere & another result is different. • Knowledge & opinion are both faculties, but not the same.

11. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Knowledge & opinion have distinct spheres. • Being is the sphere of knowledge. • Knowledge is to know the nature of being. • Opinion is to have an opinion. • If difference in faculty implies a difference in the sphere & if opinion & knowledge are distinct faculties, then the sphere of knowledge & opinion cannot be the same. • Not-being is not the subject-matter of opinion • An opinion is about something. • One cannot have an opinion about nothing. • One who has an opinion has an opinion about some one thing. • Not-being is not one thing but nothing.

12. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Opinion is Intermediate • Ignorance is the correlative of not being. • Knowledge is the correlative of being. • Opinion is not concerned with being or not-being. • Opinion is intermediate between ignorance & knowledge. • Its correlative is and is not and is between pure being & absolute non-being. • The corresponding faculty is opinion. • The Object of Opinion • The beautiful will be seen as ugly. • The ideas of the many are half-way. • Opinion & not knowledge.

13. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Lovers of Opinion vs. Lovers of Wisdom • Those who have opinion but not knowledge • See the many • Do not see the absolute • The Objects of Knowledge • The many & the one • Many • Seen • Not known • Absolute • Form • Known • Not seen

14. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • The Eye Analogy • Moonlight • Sunshine • The soul is like the eye • Truth & being • Twilight of becoming/perishing • The Sun Analogy • The Good • Light & sight are like the sun, but not the sun. • Science & truth are like the good, but not the good. • Good has a higher place of honor. • Pleasure is not the good. • The sun is the author of generation • The sun is not generation • The good is the author of knowledge, being & essence. • The good is not essence but far exceeds it.

15. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • The Four Levels of Knowledge: the Line • Ruling Powers • The good-intellectual world. • The sun-visible world. • Visible vs. intelligible. • Division of the line • Visible • Intelligible • Sections A&B • A images • A is a resemblance of B. • B includes animals, growing things, and made things. • A&B have different degrees of truth. • The copy is to the original as the sphere of opinion is to the sphere of knowledge.

16. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Sections C & D • In C figures given by D are used as images. • Hypothetical inquiry. • In D the soul passes from hypothesis to a principle above hypothesis. • No images, but proceeding in and through the forms. • Section C-Hypothesis • Math-hypothesis • Begin with hypothesis. • Using figures thinking of forms. • Soul seeking to behold the things themselves.

17. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Section D-the intelligible • Knowledge attained by reason by the dialectic using hypothesis as hypothesis and not first principles. • Intelligible • As steps to a world above hypothesis and to the first principle of the whole. • Knowledge & being contemplated by the dialectic. • Clearer than notions of arts proceeding solely from hypothesis. • Contemplated by understanding & not senses. • Understanding deals with geometry & cognitive sciences & is the intermediate between opinion & knowledge. • Four Faculties of the Soul • D Reason • C Understanding • B Belief • Imaging

18. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave

19. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • The Allegory of the Cave • Description • Cave • Chained • Fire • Walls • Vessels • Shadows • Think they are naming what is actually before them. • To them, the truth is nothing but the shadows of the images. • Release of the Prisoners-1st Step: Free in the Cave • The light is painful. • Cannot see the realities previously seen in shadows. • Approach nearer to being & have clearer vision. • Perplexed if asked to name objects. • Will initially think the shadows are truer than the objects.

20. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • The Release of the Prisoners-2nd Step: Outside the Cave • Pained & dazzled in the sun. • Need to grow accustomed • Shadows • Reflections in water • Objects • Light of the stars and moon • The sun • Argue the sun is the cause of all • The freed person • Praise himself & pity others. • Not care for the honors • If he returned, his eyes would be full of darkness. • Fare poorly in the contests. • Men would think it better not to ascend. • If anyone tried to free another, they would put him to death.

21. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • The Allegory • Cave: world of sight • Light of the fire: sun • Journey Upwards: the ascent of the soul to the intellectual world.

22. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave

23. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • The Good • The Good • Universal author of all things beautiful & right • Parent & lord of light in the visible world. • Immediate source of reason & truth in the intellectual. • Those who have seen the Good • Unwilling to descend • Behave ridiculously • Court of law • Absolute justice • Bewilderment • One who remembers

24. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Source of Knowledge • Knowledge cannot be put into the soul that was not there before • Like sight into blind eyes. • The power & capacity of learning exists in the soul already. • Eye analogy • As the eye was unable to go from darkness to light without the whole body • The instrument of knowledge must be turned from becoming to being by the movement of the whole soul. • Learn to endure the sight. • The art that effects this conversion • Does not implant the faculty of sight • It exists, but is facing the wrong way.

25. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Source of Knowledge • Knowledge cannot be put into the soul that was not there before • Like sight into blind eyes. • The power & capacity of learning exists in the soul already. • Eye analogy • As the eye was unable to go from darkness to light without the whole body • The instrument of knowledge must be turned from becoming to being by the movement of the whole soul. • Learn to endure the sight. • The art that effects this conversion • Does not implant the faculty of sight • It exists, but is facing the wrong way.

26. Plato’s Line & Allegory of the Cave • Other virtues of the soul are akin to bodily qualities • If not innate, they can be implanted later by habit & exercise • The virtue of wisdom contains a divine element which always remains. • By this its conversion becomes useful & profitable or hurtful & useless. • The narrow intelligence of the clever rogue • His paltry soul clearly sees the way to his end. • He is the reverse of the blind. • His keen sight serves evil and he is mischievous in proportion to his cleverness.

27. Introduction to Skepticism • Varieties of Skepticism • General Skepticism • The theory that we do not have any knowledge. • We cannot be completely certain that any of our beliefs are true. • Local/Moderate Skepticism • Can have mathematical and empirical knowledge. • Cannot have metaphysical knowledge. • Global Skepticism • Maintain universal doubt • Deny knowledge of an external world & other minds. • Deny knowledge of metaphysical truths. • Do not deny knowledge of mathematics & logic.

28. Introduction to Skepticism • Super-global/Extreme Skepticism • Universal doubt • Deny knowledge of mathematics & logic. • Methodological Skepticism • Skepticism is adopted as a means to another end. • Typically the refutation of skepticism. • Example: Descartes.

29. History of Skepticism • Introduction • Skeptikos • Error • Skeptikos • Lack of Foundations • Pyrrho of Elis (320-270 B.C.) • Revitalization of skepticism • 1st Century B.C. • No writings

30. History of Skepticism • Pyrrho’s Sense Experience Argument • Sense experience cannot provide knowledge. • To provide knowledge the sense experiences must match their objects. • If we can never get outside of our sensations, we can never know the experiences match the alleged objects. • Pyrrho’s Reason Argument • Argumentation cannot provide knowledge. • For each argument there is an equally good counter-argument. • Thus, there is no rational ground for accepting one argument over another.

31. History of Skepticism • Skeptic’s Position • Given that both senses and reason fail, we cannot have knowledge. • One can only speak in terms of experience. • Prudent approach: suspend judgment and not make any assumptions. • This skepticism also applies to morality. • A wise person adopts apathy and indifference. • People should follow existing laws & traditions.

32. History of Skepticism • Academic Skepticism • Arcesilaus • 316-242 B.C. • Head of Plato’s Academy • Turned Academy towards skepticism • Carneades • 214-129 B.C. • Took over Academy after Arcesilaus. • Brilliant philosopher • Athenian Ambassador to Rome (156-155 B.C.) • Public speeches • Two-Faced Method

33. History of Skepticism • The Academy • Skeptics thought the Academy lost the Socratic spirit. • Ironic charge • Skeptics focused on • Socrates’ claim he knew nothing. • Socratic dialogues ended without a definite conclusion. • Appearance • Skeptics attacked the dogmatism of the Stoics and Epicureans. • Some sense impressions seem indubitable. • Dreams & hallucinations seem convincing but are false.

34. History of Skepticism • Main Argument: No Criterion for Truth • Any standard of truth will also need justification • Thus requiring another standard to establish the truth of the standard. • And so on in an infinite regress. • Claims • Did not claim that nothing can be known. • Claim: we appear to lack knowledge. • Suspended judgment regarding skepticism. • Probability • Stoics argued that skepticism would lead to the suspension of activity. • Carneades argued that certainty is not possible but probability is and is sufficient. • Compromise lead to scorn from Stoics and later Pyrrhonic skeptics.

35. History of Skepticism • Revival of Pyrrhonian Skepticism • Purists • The Academics were not skeptical enough. • Rejected Carneade’s view of probability. • Named after Pyrrho. • Formalized skepticism. • Agrippa: Five Pillars of Skepticism • Disagreement: Not everyone will agree on an issue. • Infinite regress • Resolution requires reasons • Reasons require justifications • Justifications require justifications and so on to infinty.

36. History of Skepticism • Relativity: Perceptions of things differ in different circumstances. • Hypothesis: All starting points are arbitrary. • Circular Reasoning: Any argument that avoids the other 4 pillars will be circular. • Latter Skeptics: Two Theses • Nothing is self-evident • Nothing can be proven • Skeptic’s Goal • Personal peace • If one cannot know, there is no reason to worry. • Accept what appears to be and follow existing customs and laws. • Sextus Empiricus (3rd Century AD)

37. History of Skepticism • Importance of Skepticism • Problem • Starting points are needed for arguments. • This implies there are reasons for believing the starting points. • Contributions • Made philosophers more critical. • Philosophers had to accept or respond to the skeptics. • St. Augustine Against the Academics • Methodological skepticism in the Modern era. • Skepticism used to attack reason and support faith & revelation. • Development of science.

38. History of Skepticism • The Decline of Skepticism • Did not succeed in creating peace. • Created Confusion. • Unsatisfactory. • Religious philosophies & Christianity.

39. Renee Descartes • Rene Descartes • Life & Works • Born March 31, 1596 in La Haye France (now Descartes). • La Fleche • Degree in law • Joined armies • November 10, 1619 Three vivid dreams. • 1649 became tutor to Queen Christina of Sweden • Died February 11, 1650

40. Renee Descartes • Published Works • 1620 Rules for the Direction of the Mind • 1633 Le Monde (The World) • 1637 Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and Seeking the Truth in Sciences. • 1641 Meditations on First Philosophy • 1644 Principles of Philosophy • 1649 Passions of the Soul

41. Renee Descartes • Agenda • Motivation • Dissatisfied • Disputed and doubtful • Shaky foundation of science • Travel • Old ideas • Intellectual Journey • Diversity of opinion

42. Renee Descartes • Inward Focus • Studies • Solid foundation for the sciences • Father of modern philosophy • Quotes & argument from authority • Solitary Thinker • Personal pronouns • Discover truth • Individual journeys lead to same truths.

43. Renee Descartes • Goals • Find certainty • Create universal science • Reconcile the scientific, mechanistic conception of the universe with human freedom and religion.

44. Renee Descartes • Methodology • Mathematics • Model • Certainty & Self Evidence • Discourse • Mathematics consists in two mental operations • Intuition • Deduction

45. Renee Descartes • Intuition • The recognition of self-evident truths. • Seeing the truth. • Not derived from other truths. • Innate ideas-implanted by God. • Not always aware of ideas. • Not from sense experience. • Intellectual vision.

46. Renee Descartes • Deduction • Inference • Deduction from self-evident truth • All truths can be reached by deduction. • Analytical geometry (1637) • Physical world • All knowledge • The Meditations on First Philosophy • Six meditations • Decade • Six Days of Holy Week

47. Descartes’ First Meditation • First Part • Start and Goal • Beliefs • Doubtful • Goals • Rid himself of opinions • Establish a foundation for the sciences. • Method • Not necessary to show all beliefs are false. • Assent with held from • Matters not entirely certain and indubitable. • Manifestly false beliefs.

48. Descartes’ First Meditation • Rejecting the whole • No need to examine each belief • Doubting the Senses • Senses • Learned from the senses • At times the senses deceive • Not trust • Dream Problem • Skeptical pause #1 • Dreams • Asleep • Skeptical pause #2

49. Descartes’ First Meditation • Sleep • No certain indications • Assumes he is asleep • Painter Analogy • The analogy • General things • Combined • Simpler & more universal things • Corporeal nature • Extension • Figure • Quantity • Location • Time

50. Descartes First Meditation • Sciences considering composite things are dubious. • Math-Skeptical Pause • Arithmetic, Geometry, etc. • Awake or Asleep • Seems Impossible • God & the Demon • God • God as all powerful creator. • How does he know? • Deception. • God’s Goodness • Not Contrary to His Goodness