Oral Reading Fluency

1. MSDE Office of Reading First 1 Oral Reading Fluency

2. MSDE Office of Reading First 2 Yes, fluency provides a bridge between word recognition and reading comprehension. In reading, when words are recognized accurately, quickly, and with ease so that a text sounds like spoken language when read aloud, one becomes a fluent reader. Because fluent readers do not have to concentrate on decoding the words, they can focus their attention on what the text means. They can make connections among the ideas in the text and between the text and their background knowledge. In other words, fluent readers recognize words and comprehend at the same time. Yes, fluency provides a bridge between word recognition and reading comprehension. In reading, when words are recognized accurately, quickly, and with ease so that a text sounds like spoken language when read aloud, one becomes a fluent reader. Because fluent readers do not have to concentrate on decoding the words, they can focus their attention on what the text means. They can make connections among the ideas in the text and between the text and their background knowledge. In other words, fluent readers recognize words and comprehend at the same time.

3. MSDE Office of Reading First 3

4. MSDE Office of Reading First 4 The Outcomes for this Presentation Participants will: define oral reading fluency. learn the purpose of oral reading fluency in the instructional program. learn about some research-based strategies for fluency instruction in the classroom.

5. MSDE Office of Reading First 5 Fluency A good fluent reader is obvious. They read with accuracy, they know their sight words and when presented with a new word, they can blend quickly. You know they are understanding the material as they read because you can hear expression in their voices. These are usually the students who love to read. It comes easy for them and reading is a pleasurable experience.A good fluent reader is obvious. They read with accuracy, they know their sight words and when presented with a new word, they can blend quickly. You know they are understanding the material as they read because you can hear expression in their voices. These are usually the students who love to read. It comes easy for them and reading is a pleasurable experience.

6. MSDE Office of Reading First 6 After reading numerous articles throughout this past year, it became clear that there is no clear cut definition of fluency. Every researcher who has written an article has their own definition. We adapted and adopted these components because they were clear cut and forthright. Accuracy: few to no errors and effortless word recognition. With our beginning readers we don�t expect 100% accuracy. Most research explains accuracy as knowing 95%-100% of the words automatically. This means the reader may miss no more than 1 word out of every 20 words. Pace:This is the rate or speed of the reading � not too slow, not too fast. Fluent readers also know hot to divide the text into meaningful chunks. These chunks include phrases and clauses. Pace also includes pausing appropriately within the sentences (again those chunks of meaningful text) and at the ends of sentences. Intonation: is the tone or pitch of voice. It includes prosody: the rhythmic and onal features of speech. I like using a musical analogy to explain intonation. Think of playing a musical instrument like the clarinet. You need to have the right pitch to play a melodic piece. The loudness and softness of specific notes in important when playing certain bars just as a reader must use different stress when reading certain passages. Without intonation in music, a beginning instrumentalist is only playing notes. There is no feeling or expression. The same is true with a beginning reader. Without the qualities of intonation a reader is reading one word at a time with no apparent understanding or comprehension of the words. Expression: Often expression is included in intonation in some definitions. We elected to make it a separate category as expression adds tone to the text. It reveals more feeling and understanding of the text. It�s the quality that makes a reader get your attention, and keeps you listening. It adds emotions to dialogue and intrigue to action. It�s what separates a good storyteller from an excellent one. After reading numerous articles throughout this past year, it became clear that there is no clear cut definition of fluency. Every researcher who has written an article has their own definition. We adapted and adopted these components because they were clear cut and forthright. Accuracy: few to no errors and effortless word recognition. With our beginning readers we don�t expect 100% accuracy. Most research explains accuracy as knowing 95%-100% of the words automatically. This means the reader may miss no more than 1 word out of every 20 words. Pace:This is the rate or speed of the reading � not too slow, not too fast. Fluent readers also know hot to divide the text into meaningful chunks. These chunks include phrases and clauses. Pace also includes pausing appropriately within the sentences (again those chunks of meaningful text) and at the ends of sentences. Intonation: is the tone or pitch of voice. It includes prosody: the rhythmic and onal features of speech. I like using a musical analogy to explain intonation. Think of playing a musical instrument like the clarinet. You need to have the right pitch to play a melodic piece. The loudness and softness of specific notes in important when playing certain bars just as a reader must use different stress when reading certain passages. Without intonation in music, a beginning instrumentalist is only playing notes. There is no feeling or expression. The same is true with a beginning reader. Without the qualities of intonation a reader is reading one word at a time with no apparent understanding or comprehension of the words. Expression: Often expression is included in intonation in some definitions. We elected to make it a separate category as expression adds tone to the text. It reveals more feeling and understanding of the text. It�s the quality that makes a reader get your attention, and keeps you listening. It adds emotions to dialogue and intrigue to action. It�s what separates a good storyteller from an excellent one.

7. MSDE Office of Reading First 7 Definitions Accuracy: few to no errors and effortless word recognition. Most research explains accuracy as knowing 95%-100% of the words automatically. This means the reader may miss no more than 1 word out of every 20 words. Pace: This is the rate or speed of the reading � not too slow, not too fast. Fluent readers also know how to divide the text into meaningful chunks as in phrases and clauses. Pace also includes pausing appropriately within the sentences. Intonation: is the tone or pitch of voice. It includes prosody, the rhythmic and onal features of speech.

8. MSDE Office of Reading First 8 Definitions  Expression: Often expression is included in intonation in some definitions. We elected to make it a separate category as expression adds tone to the text. It reveals more feeling and understanding of the text. It�s the quality that makes a reader get your attention, and keeps you listening. It adds emotions to dialogue and intrigue to action. It�s what separates a good storyteller from an excellent one.

9. MSDE Office of Reading First 9 Poor intonation: monotone, no expression Word by word reading: This is where you hear a child read one word at a time. (Say this one word at a time.) Frequent repetitions: You might hear a child say: The dog saw�The dog saw�The dog saw� You will see this often in first grade or with developing or emergent readers as a typical reading behavior to help them figure out the next word. But when you see this in other grades, it shows a lack of fluency. Long pauses: Usually a decoding or contextual pause where the child is trying to figure out a word. There is no automaticity with sight words or decoding is a problem. Inappropriate phrasing: Reads without punctuation, without appropriate pausing. The child is chunking words inappropriately. Substitution errors: The word is read incorrectly but the words are synonyms. An example would be house for home, mother for mom, Sue for Susan, etc. The context is correct, but the decoding is erroneous. Sometimes they substitute their speaking vocabulary into their reading vocabulary.Poor intonation: monotone, no expression Word by word reading: This is where you hear a child read one word at a time. (Say this one word at a time.) Frequent repetitions: You might hear a child say: The dog saw�The dog saw�The dog saw� You will see this often in first grade or with developing or emergent readers as a typical reading behavior to help them figure out the next word. But when you see this in other grades, it shows a lack of fluency. Long pauses: Usually a decoding or contextual pause where the child is trying to figure out a word. There is no automaticity with sight words or decoding is a problem. Inappropriate phrasing: Reads without punctuation, without appropriate pausing. The child is chunking words inappropriately. Substitution errors: The word is read incorrectly but the words are synonyms. An example would be house for home, mother for mom, Sue for Susan, etc. The context is correct, but the decoding is erroneous. Sometimes they substitute their speaking vocabulary into their reading vocabulary.

10. MSDE Office of Reading First 10 Why is Fluency So Important? While fluency doesn�t ensure comprehension, comprehension is difficult without fluency. Have you noticed what a struggle it is for at-risk readers to decode the printed material? They are working so hard at decoding that there is no room for comprehension. That�s why it is so important for repeated readings. Once they have decoded the text once or twice, then the automaticity kicks in so they can concentrate on meaning. If you spend time decoding, there is no cognitive desk space left for meaning. Let�s do an exercise to demonstrate that cognitive desk space is to make a point about the importance of fluency. (Do LETRS Cognitive Desk Space Page )� Cognitive desk space is used focusing on spelling errors instead of comprehending text � when students are not fluent they focus on decoding instead of understanding text. Bullet 1 � Mention non-fiction such as science, social studies, health with the ever increasing complexity of text. Meaning will be disrupted if the student is stopping constantly to decode unknown, scientific words. Do Human Brain for Susan�s MIBR/Alice in Wonderland Activity for the other MIBRs. Bullet 2 � We�ve all seen students who don�t like to read never pick up a book on their own. And why? The process of reading becomes long and laborious. Bullet 3 � Fluency engages a spiraling effect. The more you read, the more you are exposed to vocabulary. And the more vocabulary you have in your background, the better you can recognize those words. And instant recognition makes for fluency. While fluency doesn�t ensure comprehension, comprehension is difficult without fluency. Have you noticed what a struggle it is for at-risk readers to decode the printed material? They are working so hard at decoding that there is no room for comprehension. That�s why it is so important for repeated readings. Once they have decoded the text once or twice, then the automaticity kicks in so they can concentrate on meaning. If you spend time decoding, there is no cognitive desk space left for meaning. Let�s do an exercise to demonstrate that cognitive desk space is to make a point about the importance of fluency. (Do LETRS Cognitive Desk Space Page )� Cognitive desk space is used focusing on spelling errors instead of comprehending text � when students are not fluent they focus on decoding instead of understanding text. Bullet 1 � Mention non-fiction such as science, social studies, health with the ever increasing complexity of text. Meaning will be disrupted if the student is stopping constantly to decode unknown, scientific words. Do Human Brain for Susan�s MIBR/Alice in Wonderland Activity for the other MIBRs. Bullet 2 � We�ve all seen students who don�t like to read never pick up a book on their own. And why? The process of reading becomes long and laborious. Bullet 3 � Fluency engages a spiraling effect. The more you read, the more you are exposed to vocabulary. And the more vocabulary you have in your background, the better you can recognize those words. And instant recognition makes for fluency.

11. MSDE Office of Reading First 11 In other words, the reader exhibits automaticity � automaticity with our coded language. It�s knowing the sounds for letters and being able to translate those sounds into words quickly.In other words, the reader exhibits automaticity � automaticity with our coded language. It�s knowing the sounds for letters and being able to translate those sounds into words quickly.

12. MSDE Office of Reading First 12 What is Cognitive Desk Space? Let�s try an exercise to demonstrate cognitive desk space.

13. MSDE Office of Reading First 13

14. MSDE Office of Reading First 14 ? Now, without looking back on the passage, summarize what you just read.

15. MSDE Office of Reading First 15 Could You Summarize the Passage? This was probably difficult as your cognitive desk space was used to focus on spelling errors instead of comprehending text. The same is true for students who are not fluent. They spend so much time focusing on decoding, they lose the meaning of the text.

16. MSDE Office of Reading First 16 Students Who are Not Fluent Have a hard time understanding and keeping up with the increasing complexity of materials. Avoid reading because of fear of failure. Have less exposure to ideas and vocabulary.

17. MSDE Office of Reading First 17 What Have We Learned About Traditional  Fluency Instruction? In the past traditional fluency instruction looked like round robin reading where one child at a time read while the rest of the class supposedly followed along. Unfortunately it: provided limited engagement promoted faulty reading habits used up valuable instructional time hampered listening comprehension In the past traditional fluency instruction looked like round robin reading where one child at a time reads while the rest of the class supposedly is following along. Let�s demonstrate a round robin reading with an effective choral reading to show the differences. (Do skit) Lisa, instead of skit what if we had students compare the amount of time two students read per year. Louise read five minutes per day (Round Robin)in Ms. Slowpoke�s room and Michele reads 20 minutes per day in Ms. Fluent�s room(partner reading, choral reading, etc. )They figure up and compare how many minutes per year each student read. Question to the audience: Which class would you like your child to be in? Turn to a partner and discuss your answer. What�s wrong with round robin reading: It is evident that with round-robin procedures students receive little actual practice in reading because no child is allowed to read for very long. Invites inattention and disruption The skilled readers are bored. In the poor reader it causes anxiety and embarrassment. For both, listening comprehension is not a focus. There are many effective methods for helping students build their fluency. We are not going to discuss some effective classroom strategies for fluency building and additional activities can be found in your fluency packet. Even when teachers provide some guidance or feedback, students rarely have the opportunity to perfect their performance of a passage, as most texts tend to be read only once.In the past traditional fluency instruction looked like round robin reading where one child at a time reads while the rest of the class supposedly is following along. Let�s demonstrate a round robin reading with an effective choral reading to show the differences. (Do skit) Lisa, instead of skit what if we had students compare the amount of time two students read per year. Louise read five minutes per day (Round Robin)in Ms. Slowpoke�s room and Michele reads 20 minutes per day in Ms. Fluent�s room(partner reading, choral reading, etc. )They figure up and compare how many minutes per year each student read. Question to the audience: Which class would you like your child to be in? Turn to a partner and discuss your answer. What�s wrong with round robin reading: It is evident that with round-robin procedures students receive little actual practice in reading because no child is allowed to read for very long. Invites inattention and disruption The skilled readers are bored. In the poor reader it causes anxiety and embarrassment. For both, listening comprehension is not a focus. There are many effective methods for helping students build their fluency. We are not going to discuss some effective classroom strategies for fluency building and additional activities can be found in your fluency packet. Even when teachers provide some guidance or feedback, students rarely have the opportunity to perfect their performance of a passage, as most texts tend to be read only once.

18. MSDE Office of Reading First 18 Effective Fluency Instruction With today�s recent research, we have learned that effective fluency instruction includes: modeling with explicit instruction. student practice with teacher feedback. reading passages on the student�s independent reading level. ongoing assessment. So what does effective fluency instruction look like in a classroom? Bullet 1: Ongoing assessment takes two forms: formal and informal. Informally, you just listen to students read and assess their fluency ( accuracy, their pace, and expression. Formally, we have our DIBELS assessments. (note: LEA specific) Bullet 2: This cannot be overemphasized. Children need to hear good role models for reading aloud. In your packet we have given you some activities/strategies with explicit instruction to use in your classrooms. Good oral reading fluency is not automatic, children need to hear good role models and practice several times a week. Which leads us to our third bullet.. Bullet 3: It is essential that teachers provide feedback on a student�s performance in order to improve their fluency. Sitting in a corner and reading by yourself making all kinds of mistakes, or reading in a monotone does not make for a fluent reader. Bullet 4: Children should practice fluency on their independent reading level, not their instruction or frustration level.So what does effective fluency instruction look like in a classroom? Bullet 1: Ongoing assessment takes two forms: formal and informal. Informally, you just listen to students read and assess their fluency ( accuracy, their pace, and expression. Formally, we have our DIBELS assessments. (note: LEA specific) Bullet 2: This cannot be overemphasized. Children need to hear good role models for reading aloud. In your packet we have given you some activities/strategies with explicit instruction to use in your classrooms. Good oral reading fluency is not automatic, children need to hear good role models and practice several times a week. Which leads us to our third bullet.. Bullet 3: It is essential that teachers provide feedback on a student�s performance in order to improve their fluency. Sitting in a corner and reading by yourself making all kinds of mistakes, or reading in a monotone does not make for a fluent reader. Bullet 4: Children should practice fluency on their independent reading level, not their instruction or frustration level.

19. MSDE Office of Reading First 19 Let�s look at that purposeful instruction to increase reading fluency. What kinds of strategies focus on fluency? Bullet 1: read the same text often and with feedback As noted earlier, the NRP determined repeated readings to be effective, in addition to improving speed, accuracy, guided repeated readings has been shown to improve word recognition, fluency, and comprehension across grade levels with both skilled and challenged readers. Bullet 2: Listening centers or literacy centers where students listen and read along with taped readings. Bullet 3: teacher modeling, peer modeling, taped readings, working with a fluent reader (teacher or parent) who can model good fluency Bullet 5: software that provides practice Bullet 6: reading silently first with a purpose In your packet is a variety of strategies that encompasses all the above except the computer exercises. Put Reading First states that one key finding from scientific research on fluency instruction includes the following conclusion: Repeated and monitored oral reading with feedback and guidance improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement. And to me that is the bottom line, repeated and monitored oral reading with feedback is a key factor.Let�s look at that purposeful instruction to increase reading fluency. What kinds of strategies focus on fluency? Bullet 1: read the same text often and with feedback As noted earlier, the NRP determined repeated readings to be effective, in addition to improving speed, accuracy, guided repeated readings has been shown to improve word recognition, fluency, and comprehension across grade levels with both skilled and challenged readers. Bullet 2: Listening centers or literacy centers where students listen and read along with taped readings. Bullet 3: teacher modeling, peer modeling, taped readings, working with a fluent reader (teacher or parent) who can model good fluency Bullet 5: software that provides practice Bullet 6: reading silently first with a purpose In your packet is a variety of strategies that encompasses all the above except the computer exercises. Put Reading First states that one key finding from scientific research on fluency instruction includes the following conclusion: Repeated and monitored oral reading with feedback and guidance improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement. And to me that is the bottom line, repeated and monitored oral reading with feedback is a key factor.

20. MSDE Office of Reading First 20 The NRP concluded that guided repeated oral reading: has a significant positive impact on word recognition/accuracy, reading fluency and comprehension (with feedback). works well under a wide variety of conditions and with minimal special training. The National Reading  Panel Report The NAEP conducted a study of fluency achievement in the US and found that 44% of a representative group of 4th graders to be dysfluent even with grade level stories. The NRP performed an analysis to consider the effectiveness of two major instructional approaches to fluency development; repeated oral reading practice or guided repeated oral reading, and formal efforts to increase independent reading. The studies of repeated and guided repeated oral reading found clear improvements across multiple readings regardless of student�s reading levels. They provide a persuasive case that repeated reading or other procedures that have students reading passages orally multiple times while receiving guidance from teachers, peers, and parents are effective in improving a variety of reading skills. Bullet 1: When word identification is fast and accurate or automatic, cognitive resources are free to process meaning. Repeated reading procedures that offer guidance and feedback are effective for improving word recognition, fluency, comprehension, comprehension, and overall reading achievement through Grade 5. Bullet 2: It�s equally effective with feedback from teachers, parents and/or peers; however, children who are struggling the most might benefit from more skilled guidance. A teacher can train a paraprofessional or parent helper to help with fluency applications. However, the more a student struggles with reading, the more they require the help of a skilled teacher. The NAEP conducted a study of fluency achievement in the US and found that 44% of a representative group of 4th graders to be dysfluent even with grade level stories. The NRP performed an analysis to consider the effectiveness of two major instructional approaches to fluency development; repeated oral reading practice or guided repeated oral reading, and formal efforts to increase independent reading. The studies of repeated and guided repeated oral reading found clear improvements across multiple readings regardless of student�s reading levels. They provide a persuasive case that repeated reading or other procedures that have students reading passages orally multiple times while receiving guidance from teachers, peers, and parents are effective in improving a variety of reading skills. Bullet 1: When word identification is fast and accurate or automatic, cognitive resources are free to process meaning. Repeated reading procedures that offer guidance and feedback are effective for improving word recognition, fluency, comprehension, comprehension, and overall reading achievement through Grade 5. Bullet 2: It�s equally effective with feedback from teachers, parents and/or peers; however, children who are struggling the most might benefit from more skilled guidance. A teacher can train a paraprofessional or parent helper to help with fluency applications. However, the more a student struggles with reading, the more they require the help of a skilled teacher.

21. MSDE Office of Reading First 21 Why Have Fluency Assessments? Why have fluency assessments? Bullet 1: So if our goal is for all 3rd grade students to be reading on grade level at the end of grade 3, fluency must be monitored and assessed throughout all grade levels. Bullet 2: Monitoring fluency will occur when we administer the DIBELS testing three times a year, which will give us meaningful feedback as to what strategies we will use with those students who are having difficulties.Why have fluency assessments? Bullet 1: So if our goal is for all 3rd grade students to be reading on grade level at the end of grade 3, fluency must be monitored and assessed throughout all grade levels. Bullet 2: Monitoring fluency will occur when we administer the DIBELS testing three times a year, which will give us meaningful feedback as to what strategies we will use with those students who are having difficulties.

22. MSDE Office of Reading First 22 Fluency Assessment The Reading First measure in Maryland�s Reading First Schools for fluency is an instrument called DIBELS

23. MSDE Office of Reading First 23 What is DIBELS? Briefly read over this slide.Briefly read over this slide.

24. MSDE Office of Reading First 24 DIBELS As a screening tool Let�s explore the difference.Let�s explore the difference.

25. MSDE Office of Reading First 25 Screening Tool Purpose: designed as a first step to identify children who are likely to need additional instructional support When: September, January, and May Who: all students DIBELS is a validated tool for early identification of children with potential problems and an assessment of response to instruction. The screening functions of DIBELS begin in K and are available through grade 6. Coach � paraphrase the following according to your audience�s needs: Screening Assessment: Because the measures are designed to be brief and instructionally focused, all students can be efficiently screened to determine if they are at risk for reading difficulties. The measures assess literacy skills that research has found to be indicators of later reading proficiency, namely letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, alphabetic understanding and automaticity and fluency with the code. DIBELS is a validated tool for early identification of children with potential problems and an assessment of response to instruction. The screening functions of DIBELS begin in K and are available through grade 6. Coach � paraphrase the following according to your audience�s needs: Screening Assessment: Because the measures are designed to be brief and instructionally focused, all students can be efficiently screened to determine if they are at risk for reading difficulties. The measures assess literacy skills that research has found to be indicators of later reading proficiency, namely letter knowledge, phonemic awareness, alphabetic understanding and automaticity and fluency with the code.

26. MSDE Office of Reading First 26 Progress Monitoring Tool Purpose: to measure student growth toward a benchmark goal When: as needed Who: students receiving additional instructional support Home and school have collaborated; we discussed your child�s strengths and concerns; we altered/changed instruction; now we administered DIBELS to monitor progress. Is the additional instruction that we are providing to your child effective or helping? Is it working? We ask the tough questions and respond with digging deeper. Home and school have collaborated; we discussed your child�s strengths and concerns; we altered/changed instruction; now we administered DIBELS to monitor progress. Is the additional instruction that we are providing to your child effective or helping? Is it working? We ask the tough questions and respond with digging deeper.

27. MSDE Office of Reading First 27 DIBELS Benchmark Goals & Timelines for Oral Reading Fluency

28. MSDE Office of Reading First 28 In order to build fluency, we begin�(Read bullet 1) Bullet 2: (just read it) Bullet 3: differentiation Bullet 4: It�s a process. It doesn�t happen overnight.In order to build fluency, we begin�(Read bullet 1) Bullet 2: (just read it) Bullet 3: differentiation Bullet 4: It�s a process. It doesn�t happen overnight.

29. MSDE Office of Reading First 29 Integrate Oral Reading Fluency Throughout the Day Arrival time, during small group, quiet morning work Core program Independent seatwork Reading in small groups Literacy centers

30. MSDE Office of Reading First 30 Do You Want to Know More? Armbruster, B., Lehr, F. & Osborn, J. (2001). Put Reading first: the Research Building Blocks for Teaching children to Read: Kindergarten through Grade 3. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy. Durkin, D. (1993). Teaching Them to Read. (6th edition) Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Farstrup, A., & Samuels, S. (2002). Evidence-based Reading Instruction: Putting the National Reading Panel Report into Practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Good, R.H., Gruba, J., Kaminski, R.A. (2001.) Best Practices in Using Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) in an Outcomes-Driven Model. In A. Thomas 7 J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology IV (pp.679-700). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Houston, Deborah, Al Oraiba, Stephanie, and Torgesen, Joseph (in press). Learning to Read: Phonics and Fluency. In F. Spooner & D. Browder, Teaching Reading, Math, and Science to Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes

31. MSDE Office of Reading First 31 Kuhn, Melanie & Stahl, Steven. (2003). Fluency: A Review of Developmental and Remedial Practices. www.ciera.org/library LINKS Project (2000). Fluency: Participant�s & Facilitator�s Manual. Olympia, WA: Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Moats, L. (2004). LETRS: Language Essentials for Teachers of Reading and Spelling, Modules 1-9. Longmont, CIO: Sopris West. National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidenced-based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on reading and its Implications for reading Instruction: Reports of the Subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human development. Rasinski, Timothy (2003). The Fluent Reader. New York, New York: Scholastic Professional Books. Rose, Mary (1998). Reading comprehension and Fluency. New York, NY: Scholastic. Shore, R. (19997). Rethinking the Brain: New Insights into Early Development. New York: Families and Work Institute. Snow, C.E., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.