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Science, Technology, Religion, and Culture: The Foundation of Civilization

Explore the interconnectedness of science, technology, religion, and culture in the development of civilizations throughout history. Discover the importance of science in uniting societies and driving progress. This perspective sheds light on the historical and intellectual milestones that shaped the field of Science, Technology, and Policy (STP).

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Science, Technology, Religion, and Culture: The Foundation of Civilization

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  1. IS CIVILIZATION WITHOUT SCIENCE POSSIBLE? AN STP PERSPECTIVE Prof. Namık K. PAK Middle East Technical UniversityAnkara, Turkey Bologna, September 2013

  2. Science-Technology-Religion-Culture-Civilization • Science is a system of knowledge about nature based on repeatable observation and experiment. • Religion is a system of knowledge based on unverifiable/unfalsifiable belief. • Technology is the application of knowledge about nature to practical aims of human endeavour. N. K. PAK, METU

  3. Science-Technology-Religion-Culture-Civilization • Civilization emerged about 3000 BC • Çatalhöyük Findings: Man knew measurement and accurate mapping techniques about 6200 BC. There are also findings that people were artistic (culture) long before the emergence of first civilization. N. K. PAK, METU

  4. Science-Technology-Religion-Culture-Civilization • Technology and science began as parallel developments but became eventually inseparable. • Society is the organizational form in which individuals of a species live together. N. K. PAK, METU

  5. Science-Technology-Religion-Culture-Civilization • Human society is the only evolving society; its structure changes in response to environmental and economic conditions from the hunter-gatherer society through the agricultural society to the urban society. N. K. PAK, METU

  6. Science-Technology-Religion-Culture-Civilization • The development of cities was accompanied by division of labor and by the development of classes (civilization). • Civilization requires a central institution responsible for the organization of daily life and an advanced administration. • Civilization is structure; culture is behaviour (belief, language, art, morals, several capabilities and habits) N. K. PAK, METU

  7. Science Unifies the WORLD • Science was invented some 2500 years ago in the Agean basin. • It re-entered in the cultures only recently with the scientific revolution. • The Western Eurepean countries which were involved with SR prospered drammatically. Those like Ottoman empire which closed eyes to this revolotunary development, declined and fell. N. K. PAK, METU

  8. Science Unifies the WORLD • Science is continuous across cultural boundaries. Ionian science of antiquity became thescienceof the muslims of yesterday and the science of the muslims became the science of Europe/World today, through generally continuous development and growth. N. K. PAK, METU

  9. Science Unifies the WORLD • There is neither a science of the West, nor an Islamic science. There is only one Science that wanders from culture to culture, and we are all heir to it, and are entitled to it. • Science is the only truly uniting bond of all humanity. • It is the source of all welfare of the societies. N. K. PAK, METU

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  11. Historical Precursers of STP • Directing and affecting S&T efforts for societal goals, e.g. Warfare Renaissance Period • Leonardo Da Vinci • Sir Francis Bacon (New Atlantis) N. K. PAK, METU

  12. History of STP • Early policies (60’s) :R&D Policy Establishment and strengthening og R&D infrastcructure and human resources development • Evolved as an Academic Discipline in mid 50’s. N. K. PAK, METU

  13. Intellectual Milestones in theDevelopment of STP • J. D. Bernal: Social Functions of Science, 1939. Produced just before WWII. Marks the beginning of STP theory (also the history of STP) • J. Schumpeter, Theory of Economic Development, 1912 (Eng. 1934). First classical work on technological progress. Introduced the term INNOVATION. “Invention successfully applied to production (economy) by an entrepreunor” Innovation is accomplished only with the first commercial transaction involving the new “product, process, or device”. N. K. PAK, METU

  14. Historical Developments whichtriggered STP • 1. Examples of collective efforts directed and financed by the goverments during WWII: • Manhattan Project, • Development of Radar, Sonar, Rockets • Development of Operations Research (applications of math to large scale logistics problems). • Computer • After WWII : • Number of Significance of these types of projects increased (bi-polar world of Cold War). N. K. PAK, METU

  15. Historical Developments whichtriggered STP • Developments in the Field of Economy and International Politics • Emergence of Keynesian Economic Model [Keynes, The General Theory, 1936] • 1st Five Year Econ. Plan of USSR : To establish the first Socialist Society of the world N. K. PAK, METU

  16. Phases of STP In general we can identify 2 evolutionary periods: • Naive Period of STP (1945-late 1960’s) • Transitionary Period in 1960’s • 2nd Phase (mid 1970’s-1990) • 3rd Phase after 1990’s N. K. PAK, METU

  17. Phases Of STP Naive Period of STP (1945-late 1960’s): Main characteristics: • Big Science, Big Technology Project.Highest prestige to scientists and engineers • Government : Leading Actor • S&T programs are planned / financed / implemented by government agencies. • Building up / strengthening R&D capabilities • Science push (every R&D activity will naturally result in inventions /innovations for public benefit N. K. PAK, METU

  18. NEED FOR NEW STP POLICIES The need for redesigned S&T policies became apparent after two consecutive oil crises in the 70’s, with efforts to this end gaining impetus world-wide after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and emerging new challenges brought along by the ICT revolution. The new motto was the transformation to knowledge economy, and the new S&T Policy paradigm was the establishment of National Innovation Systems (NIS). N. K. PAK, METU

  19. Phases Of STP 2nd Phase (mid 1970’s-1990) • Triggered by Oil crisis in 70’s -slowed economic growth-Inflation Declining economic productivity. N. K. PAK, METU

  20. Phases of STP 3rd Phase ( after 1990’s) • Universities are moving to status of primary actors, Path from basic research to industrial development is growing shorter ICT revolution →Information Society (later =knowledge society) Quantum Theory of the electron! N. K. PAK, METU

  21. 21st Century Policies • Generic innovations are highly science-based • Basic research products are born from sciencelabs • Thus new role of governments: • Fund research (provide adequate funding for long-term research, and related training/education) • Facilitate/improve the interaction between Science System and Industry • Stimulate cooperation (collaborative centers) • Removal of barriers of cooperation (inadequate IP regulation) • Facilitation of mobility of scientists/engineers N. K. PAK, METU

  22. 21st Century Policies • Although Science Policy (proper) has diverged from Technology/ Innovationpolicies in the last quarter of 20th century, these systemshavebeen growing closer to each other recently. N. K. PAK, METU

  23. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT In May 2, 1995 an advertisement was published in Washington Post, signed by a group of leading industrialists, including the presidents of GE, IBM, Chrysler etc. The following passage is taken from that text: N. K. PAK, METU

  24. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT Unfortunately, today America’s technological prowess is severely threatened. As the federal government undergoes downsizing, there is pressure for critical university research to be slashed. University research makes a tempting target because many people aren’t aware of the critical role it plays. N. K. PAK, METU

  25. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT It can take years of intense research before technologies emerge that can “make it” in the marketplace. History has shown that it is federally sponsored research that provides the truly “patient” capital needed to carry out basic research and create an environment for the inspired risk-taking that is essential to technological discovery. N. K. PAK, METU

  26. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT Often these advances have no immediate practical usability but open “technology windows” that can be pursued until viable applications emerge. Such was the case with pioneering university research done on earthquakes in the 1920s, which led over time to the modern science of seismology and the design of structures that better withstand earthquake forces. N. K. PAK, METU

  27. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT Today, we, the undersigned -executives of some America’s leading technology companies- believe that our country’s future economic and social well-being stands astride a similarly ominous “fault line”. N. K. PAK, METU

  28. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT We can personally attest that large and small companies in America, established and entrepreneurial, all depend on two products of our research universities; new technologies and well educated of scientists and engineers. N. K. PAK, METU

  29. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT There was also an article published in Le Monde on 21 June, 2002 written by a group of high level European scientists, including three Nobel laureates, titled “Science in danger, Europe in peril”, addressing the issue of weak state of European research, and the increasing gap between the R & D in Europe and the USA or Japan. N. K. PAK, METU

  30. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT The concerns, • one from the leading industrialists of the USA, • the other from the leading scientists of Europe are almost identical. N. K. PAK, METU

  31. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT Frank Biancheri, the Director of strategic studies- Europe 2020, as a follow-up to this Le Monde article, based on the study triggered by the Le Monde article in his quest for a way out, takes a critical attitude towards the Framework Programs, as he probably singles out these programs as the most important trans-European instruments of RTD: N. K. PAK, METU

  32. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT He not only criticizes but also proposes some remedies: • Support the development of centres of excellence; • Target young researchers; Put scientists at the heart of the European research programmes; • Give priority to fundamental research. N. K. PAK, METU

  33. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT One of the leading S & T Policy researchers from SPRU, (late)Prof. K. Pavitt has also expressed similar concerns (for the EU programs): “The role of publicly funded academic research in the system of innovations, thus in Europe’s future economic and social development has been misunderstood and neglected in policies”. N. K. PAK, METU

  34. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT He bases this criticism mostly on the misunderstanding on the nature of the output of the academic research as “information” that is costly to produce, but virtually costless to transmit and re-use. It is a misunderstanding because, the capacity to understand, interpret, reproduce and apply the results of research performed in other countries requires an infrastructure of expertise, equipment and networks that is costly. N. K. PAK, METU

  35. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT His main claim, based on the USA experience, is that “public funding of high quality academic research is the source of major new technological opportunities, as well as an attraction for high quality business activities in an increasingly global world”. N. K. PAK, METU

  36. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT Another point he draws attention at is that the European firms are performing an increasing share of their R & D outside their home country, and more specifically in the USA. He considers this to be an additional added value to the US supremacy ? N. K. PAK, METU

  37. EXAMPLES OF CHANGING CONCERNS-PARADIGM SHIFT He concludes that the «strengthening high quality academic research should become one of the principle objectives of EU policies. EU funding of academic research should complement and compete with national sources of funding, and not replace them»: These kind of concerns and criticisms eventually led to the creation of ERC to open a window towards basic research N. K. PAK, METU

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  40. Periodization of Turkish STP Turkey entered the STP era in the aerly 1960’s (like many other nations) with the establishment of TUBITAK Pre-history of TR-STP = final westernization in socio-cultural life • Secularization of state (early 20’s to mid 30’s) • Adoption of Latin alphabet • University reforms • Etatist economic policy After 60 : planning period In economy, full-scale import substitution in industrialization = necessitated a minimum threshold of ST infrastructure N. K. PAK, METU

  41. Naive Phase = Early 60’s to mid 80’s • Beginning of 60’s = 5 universities, 20 (mostly agricultural) public R&D institutions • 0.3% of GDP spent, by a few hundred researchers • (Unwritten policy) to strenghten (broaden) R&D infrastructure Government : Main actor Principal executive organ : TUBITAK Model of STP : Supply oriented Transfer of Technology : Embodied N. K. PAK, METU

  42. 2nd Phase (Mid 1980’s to early 2000’s) • Economy was transformed : Industry could transfer high-tech intensive goods/services in disembodied form ( under patent/license/know-how aggrements) [reflects a much more advanced level of S&T capacity] • Economic policies liberalized; domestic markets opened up to foreign firms; some foreign licensers withdrew their licences to protect their markets from the competition of the licenses (TR-firms) • Need arised for producing technologies (to cope with international competition) N. K. PAK, METU

  43. AS CONCLUDING; • The final backbone of the STP is: «the commercialization of the research results» N. K. PAK, METU

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