死亡與冥界

1. 死亡與冥界

2. 「天國」(天堂)觀念的形成與發展，包含十分複雜的文化心理。一般西方學者認為「天國」觀念是人類的一種先天性的集體潛意識；但另一些中國神話學家(唯物史觀的)則認為它是一種社會性甚強的文化心理，是後天性的，是人類在數千年的集體實踐基礎上產生的。「天國」(天堂)觀念的形成與發展，包含十分複雜的文化心理。一般西方學者認為「天國」觀念是人類的一種先天性的集體潛意識；但另一些中國神話學家(唯物史觀的)則認為它是一種社會性甚強的文化心理，是後天性的，是人類在數千年的集體實踐基礎上產生的。

3. 在原始時代初期的各國神話裡，天堂、地獄(冥界)只不過是各個民族的文化心理結構中之最好和最壞的生活環境；亦反映各國的地理、歷史、和民族心理。在原始時代初期的各國神話裡，天堂、地獄(冥界)只不過是各個民族的文化心理結構中之最好和最壞的生活環境；亦反映各國的地理、歷史、和民族心理。

4. 中國殷商時期已有明確的天堂觀念。這時的天堂，除了神之外，也允許人間的君王進入的。甲骨文的卜辭寫有「賓於帝」說明人君可以在天帝的身旁。到周代，這觀念仍繼續，例如：《詩經‧大雅》「文王在上，於照於天」，「文王……在帝左右」。中國殷商時期已有明確的天堂觀念。這時的天堂，除了神之外，也允許人間的君王進入的。甲骨文的卜辭寫有「賓於帝」說明人君可以在天帝的身旁。到周代，這觀念仍繼續，例如：《詩經‧大雅》「文王在上，於照於天」，「文王……在帝左右」。

5. 中國人把死後的精神體分為「魂」和「魄」，魂上天(但不是到「天堂」)而魄入地。宋玉《招魂》︰「魂兮歸來。君無上天些，虎豹九關，啄害下人些」；即是︰普通人的靈魂可以上天，但不能進神界的天堂，因為它也像人間的帝王宮殿般，有虎、豹把守著九重關卡，啄害「下人」的靈魂。中國人把死後的精神體分為「魂」和「魄」，魂上天(但不是到「天堂」)而魄入地。宋玉《招魂》︰「魂兮歸來。君無上天些，虎豹九關，啄害下人些」；即是︰普通人的靈魂可以上天，但不能進神界的天堂，因為它也像人間的帝王宮殿般，有虎、豹把守著九重關卡，啄害「下人」的靈魂。

6. 《山海經‧海內西經》敘述的天堂︰帝之下都昆崙之墟也是宮殿式的︰「昆崙之墟方八百里，高萬仞，上有木禾，長五尋，大五圍，面有九井，以玉為檻，面有九門，門有開明獸守之，百神之所在，在八隅之岩，赤水之際，非仁羿莫能上之岩。昆崙南淵深三百仞，開明獸身大類虎而九首，皆人面，東向立昆崙上。……」 —— 描繪著天堂是瑰麗堂皇的宮殿，還有珍禽異獸，更有猛獸守關，普通人不能進入。

7. 在《山海經‧海內西經》中的昆崙之墟只有一層；但在《山海經‧西次三經》中，昆崙之墟已變成兩層，向天上發展，添了「槐江之山」的「平圃」—— 屈原《天問》亦提及「昆崙懸圃」的地方。 • 到了《水經注‧河水》所描述的天堂 —— 昆崙，又添多一層： • 「昆崙之山三級，下曰樊桐，一名板桐；二曰玄圃，一名閬風；上曰增城，一名為天庭，是為太帝所居。」

8. 袁珂《古神話選譯》(頁109-110)： • 「大約最古的神話是說︰神們都住在高山上，天帝的都城也在高山的巔頂。猶如希臘神話所說︰『宙斯和眾神都住在奧林帕斯山上。』那麼『帝之下都』昆崙山；其實也就是『帝之上都』，…… (後來)，神的住居應該在比高山更高的天上。於是，可能原本是黃帝『上都』的昆崙山，也就變成『下都』了。」

9. 《淮南子‧地形篇》亦云： • 「昆崙之丘，或上倍之，是謂涼風之山，登之而不死。或上倍之，是謂懸圃，登之乃靈，能使風雨。或上倍之，乃維上天，登之乃神，是謂太帝之居。」 • 這些神話︰十分形象地把人間的階級反映到神界，於是出現天堂的等級；住在天堂第一級的「涼風之山者，只可獲本身不死之術，他們只是天堂中的老百姓，比凡人不同之處，就是能不死。住在天堂第二層的懸圃者，除了不死之外，還獲得了靈氣，可以呼風喚雨，驅動自然力量。最高層次的當然就是『太帝』的居所。」

10. 地獄︰希臘文Hades意思是看不見，亦是冥王哈得斯的名字；希臘神話中，Tartarus亦有地府的意思，因為Tartarus是囚禁Titans巨人的黑獄。地獄︰希臘文Hades意思是看不見，亦是冥王哈得斯的名字；希臘神話中，Tartarus亦有地府的意思，因為Tartarus是囚禁Titans巨人的黑獄。

11. Hades: When the Greeks buried the dead, they put a coin under the corpse’s tongue so his soul could pay the fare on the ferry that crossed the river styx. It was Charon who rowed the boat. Souls who could not pay for the ride had to wait on this side of the river. On the other side of the river was a great wall. Its gate was guarded by Cerberus, a three-headed dog who had an appetite for live meat and attacked everyone (except spirits). Beyond the gate, in Tartarus, was a great field where lived the dead. They wondered back and forth aimlessly.

12. Hades and his queen lived in a great palace made of black rock. He was very jealous of his brothers (Zeus & Poisedon), and rarely left his underworld kingdom. Hades was very possessive, and demanded a headcount from Charon at the close of each day. Never did he allow any his subjects to escape. (Nor did he allow a mortal to visit Tartarus, and return).

13. One tradition, followed by Homer, placed Hades in the sunless region beyond the great river “Ocean” which surrounded the earth, but as the Greeks later discovered more of the world, a new tradition located the underworld —— the kingdom of Hades —— in the center of the earth, connected to the land of the living by rivers, such as Acheron (river of woe), the Styx (river of hate), Lethe (river of forgetfulness), etc.

14. 附記︰Persephone, daughter of Demeter (“Barley-mother”, [also named Ceres,  “cereal”], goddess of the cornfield, mistress of planting and harvesting, & Zeus. • Persephone later became Hades’ queen of the underworld. • Persephone was raised among flowers and looked like a flower herself. One day, Persephone was kidnapped by Hades. Demeter looked for her daughter and the birds told her what had happened. (A little boy laughed at Demeter and was made a lizard which was then eaten by a hawk). Demeter then went to Zeus but Zeus was bribed by Hades (with a special gift: a new thunderbolt). Demeter went home but since then, nothing grew. Tress were stripped of leaves……The soil was hard and cracked……The people were starving……

15. Zeus asked for a compromise. Demeter replied, “while Persephone is gone, no crops will grow, no tress will bear, no grass spring. While she is gone, the earth will grow as dry as my heart……”

16. Zeus’ judgment: • “Persephone shall be restored to you and shall remain with you. However, if any food has passed her lips during her stay in Tartarus, then she must remain there. This is the law of abode, older than our decrees, and even I am powerless to revoke it.”

17. Demeter cried, “Persephone will have been too sad to eat. No food will have passed her lips. She shall return to me and remain with me. You have spoken, and I hold you to your word.” Hermes, the messenger god, was sent to Hades.

18. Meanwhile, Persephone refused to eat the delicious meals of Hades. (even though she was hungry). One day, she saw a little boy eating a red fruit juicily, It was a pomegranate, her favorite fruit (pomo granatus = full of seeds 番石榴[grenade = 手榴彈]). Persephone was tempted to eat by the little boy (who was made a lizard by Demeter!)

19. After eaten 6 seeds, Hermes came, and bought Persephone back home. But since Persephone had eaten 6 seeds, Zeus pronounced his judgment that Persephone had to spend 6 months each year with Hades in the underworld.

20. Demeter cried, “I suffer! And if I suffer, then everyone else shall suffer, too. For the months that Persephone spend in the underworld, no grass will grow, no flowers blow, no trees will bear.” (That is why summer and winter are the way they are That is why there is a time for planting, and a time when the earth must rest in winter).

21. 中國的地獄記載有《左傳‧隱公元年》(公元前721年) 引鄭莊公「不及黃泉，無相見」之句。 • 此外，《夸父追日》神話亦可能與冥界有關 (參看王孝廉︰《中國的神話與傳說》，台北︰聯經，1977年，頁103-163)。這則神話可能隱喻古代人民對晝夜的解釋，亦從夜間的黑暗生活環境引申到「陰間」(冥界)的生活環境之想像依據。

22. 宋玉《招魂》描繪的地獄是極恐怖的︰「魂夸歸來，君無下此幽都些。土伯九約，……敦 血挴，逐人駓駓些。參目虎首，其身若牛些。此皆甘人，歸來歸來，恐自遣災些。」即是描述亡魂在冥界幽都所見，都是吃人的妖魔。地下魔王土伯，敦 的指爪都染著鮮血，追逐著人的亡魂。參目是牛身虎頭的怪物等都是以人肉為美味的妖魔。在《招魂》中描述的中國古代冥界，處處都是殘害之魂的地方，沒有一處是亡魂安息之所，一些中國神話學者認為這是古代人物對自然力量的畏懼及無奈。

23. (相對地，古希臘冥界則有Elysian Fields: The dead who were judged to be of unusual virtue went to the Elysian Fields close by. Here it was always holiday. The air was full of music. They danced and played day and night [for the dead need no sleep]).

24. 中國人的靈魂觀念︰ • 《左傳‧昭公七年》子產論魂魄，孔穎達解曰︰「以魂本附和，氣必上浮，故言魂氣歸於天，魄本歸形，形既入土，故言形魄歸於土」

25. 《老子》第六章「是謂玄牝」，《河上注》云︰「玄，天也，於人為鼻；牝，地也，於人為口。天食人以五氣。從鼻入，藏於心，五氣清微，為精神、聰明、音聲五性。其鬼曰魂。魂者，雄也，主出入人鼻，與五通；故鼻為玄牝。地食人以五味，從口入，藏於胃。五性 腐，為形骸，骨肉，血脈、六情，其鬼曰魄。魄者，雌也，主出入於口，與地通，故口為牝也。」

26. 中國文化的生命觀，有天、地、人三才，人為天與地之精英所成，人死後魂歸天而魄入地，以還原也。「氣」是古代中國人認為宇宙生成一種元素，是一種無形的力量，人就是由有形的軀體與這種無形的力量相結合，才能有活力，而靈魂也是由屬於氣的魂和屬於形的魄組成。中醫和氣功與這種觀念亦有密切的關係。中醫認為︰「肝屬東方木而藏魂，肺屬西方金而藏魄。」《抱朴子‧地真篇》︰「欲得通神。當金、水分形，形分則自見其身中之三魂、七魄。」又說︰「人要不為三魂所制，須制御陰雜之氣，使清陽之氣久居人身中，如此神氣常堅，精華不散，則人不衰老。」中國文化的生命觀，有天、地、人三才，人為天與地之精英所成，人死後魂歸天而魄入地，以還原也。「氣」是古代中國人認為宇宙生成一種元素，是一種無形的力量，人就是由有形的軀體與這種無形的力量相結合，才能有活力，而靈魂也是由屬於氣的魂和屬於形的魄組成。中醫和氣功與這種觀念亦有密切的關係。中醫認為︰「肝屬東方木而藏魂，肺屬西方金而藏魄。」《抱朴子‧地真篇》︰「欲得通神。當金、水分形，形分則自見其身中之三魂、七魄。」又說︰「人要不為三魂所制，須制御陰雜之氣，使清陽之氣久居人身中，如此神氣常堅，精華不散，則人不衰老。」

27. 中國人的魂所歸何處？ • 《孝經‧授神契》︰「泰山，天帝孫也。主召人魂……故知人生命之長短。」 • 曹植《驅車篇》︰「神哉彼泰山……魂神所系屬。」 • 魄又歸何處？ • 《古辭‧蒿里》︰「蒿里，誰家地，斂魄無賢愚，鬼伯一何相催促，人命不得少踟躕。」(蒿里是泰山附近的一座小山)即是說︰泰山是魂、蒿里是魄的居所(魂往高處升，魄向低處聚。)

28. 總括而言，天堂、地獄的觀念︰ • 人類對其居住環境，向好的與壞的兩個極端加以誇張，加以理想化的概括描繪，形成了天堂與地獄的外貌； • 天堂與地獄的描述，是對大自然及社會的不平現象加以神秘化與神話化的解釋：獎賞與懲罰 (“reward & punishment)；希望與恐懼 (“hope & fear”)；

29. 天堂、地獄觀念的形成，有地理、歷史的、社會的、哲理的不同文化因素。由於各個民族文化心理結構的側重點不同，各個歷史時代的文化思潮的側重點不同，天堂、地獄觀念的組合方式也是多樣化的。天堂、地獄觀念的形成，有地理、歷史的、社會的、哲理的不同文化因素。由於各個民族文化心理結構的側重點不同，各個歷史時代的文化思潮的側重點不同，天堂、地獄觀念的組合方式也是多樣化的。

30. Myths of Death (compiled by Fred Cheung) • (Main source: Powell, Classical Myth) • The Greeks, like all peoples, held complex attitudes toward death and the dead, and many stories reflect them. The Greek conception of the afterlife contributed to their conviction that happiness must be achieved in this world. Some mythical figures actually escaped death, either by becoming gods or by achieving immortality in a paradise somewhere at the edge of the world.

31. Death was to be caused by a hostile force from the natural world (a storm or an animal attack), from a human being (an evil person), or from the invisible and inexplicable realm of gods, ghosts, and priests.

32. Any god could cause the death of a mortal, but one specific god played a special role. Hades, (god of the underworld or hell), apparently the unseen one, was the general agent of death. The dead was buried in the earth, and Hades was appropriately associated with a realm beneath the earth’s surface. The brother of Zeus and Poseidon, Hades received the underworld as his lot when ruler over the universe was divided. Thus he was also called Pluto, the “enricher,” because from beneath the earth comes mineral and agricultural wealth.

33. Most ancient Greeks believed that individual human beings continued to exist after death, although in an attenuated form. The buried body might decay, but the soul survived as a sort of “image” (eidolon) dwelling thereafter in a separate realm ordinarily unseen by the living. Traditionally, the soul was associated with the breath, the invisible, barely tangible natural element that animates the living body.

34. The connection can be seen in the derivation of the Greek and Latin words for ‘soul”: the Greek psyche originally meant “breath”(from psyche comes psychology, the study of the soul; in the Bible, “God formed man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being” [Genesis 2.7.5), and the Latin anima is related to the Greek word anem-, “wind.”

35. Similarly, the Latin word spiritus, “spirit,” means “breath”. In Sanskrit and Hebrew, too, the word for “wind” and “breath” (atma and ruach) is the same as that which designates the immaterial part of a human being. The Greeks and Romans, like many other early peoples, observed that breathing is what distinguishes the living and the dead.

36. The ancients logically inferred that breath is the basis for all the other activities of a living human being, such as sensing, thinking, and moving. The body performs these functions only as long as the breath or soul is present within it. The body is thus only the material part of a human being; the soul is the warm, invisible force that animates the body for the duration of the person’s life.