Understanding Sociology & Sociological Research

1. Understanding Sociology & Sociological Research Chapters 1 & 2

2. A Look Ahead • How did sociology develop? • How does it differ from other social sciences? • Who are the pioneers and what are their theoretical perspectives? • How does sociology help us develop a sociological imagination?

3. What is Sociology? • Sociology: Scientificstudy of social behavior and human groups • Focus on: • How relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior • How societies develop and change

4. Sociological Perspective • Special vision • Seeing the general in the particular • Seeing the strange in the familiar • Seeing individuality in social context

5. Benefits of the Sociological Perspective • Question “common sense” • Assess opportunities and constraints • Empowerment • Living in a diverse world

6. The Sociological Imagination • C. Wright Mills’ sociological imagination: • An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society • Ability to view society as an outsider would • Looks beyond limited understanding of human behavior

7. Sociology and the Social Sciences • Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior • Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society • Examine social relationships scientifically

8. Sociology and the Social Sciences • Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation • Natural science: Study of physical features of nature and the ways they interact and change • Social science: Study of social features of humans and the ways they interact and change

9. Sociology and Common Sense • Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it” • Each piece of information must be tested, recorded, and analyzed

10. Key concepts in Sociology • Skepticism • Uncovering “inconvenient facts”- Weber • Method of organizing perspectives • Objectivity • Ethics • Critical thinking

11. The Development of Sociology • Industrial Revolution • Growth of cities • Pull of factories • Push of enclosure • Political Change • Pursuit of self-interest

12. Early Thinkers • Auguste Comte (1798–1857) • Systematic investigation of behavior • Coined term “sociology” • Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) • Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S. • Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems • Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) • Studied “evolutionary” change in society

13. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) • Behavior must be understood within larger social context • Anomie: Loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective

14. Max Weber (1864–1920) • To comprehend behavior, one must learn subjective meaning people attach to actions • Verstehen: understanding; insight • Ideal type: Construct for evaluating specific cases

15. Karl Marx (1818–1883) • Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests • The Communist Manifesto • Working class should overthrow existing class system • Emphasized group identification and associations that influence one’s place in society

16. Modern Developments • W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) • Black sociologists assisted struggle for racially egalitarian society • Knowledge essential in combating prejudice • Double consciousness: Division of individual’s identity into two or more social realities

17. Twentieth-Century Developments • Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) • Used sociological perspective to examine face-to-face groups • Jane Addams (1860–1935) • Combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism • Co-founded Hull House

18. Modern Developments • Robert Merton (1910–2003) • Combined theory and research • Developed explanation of deviant behavior • Macrosociology: Concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations • Microsociology: Stresses study of small groups, often through experimental means

19. Modern Developments • Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) • Capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next • Cultural capital: noneconomic goods reflected in knowledge of language and arts • Social capital: collective benefit of social networks

20. Why Theory? • Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem • 3 sociological theoretical paradigms • Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research

21. Functionalist Perspective • Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability • Views society as vast network of connected parts • Each helps maintain the system as a whole

22. Functionalist Perspective • Manifest functions: Open, stated, conscious functions; intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society • Latent functions: Unconscious or unintended functions; may reflect hidden purposes • Dysfunctions: Elements or processes of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability

23. Conflict Perspective • Assumes social behavior best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups • The Marxist view: Conflict is part of everyday life in all societies • Conflict theorists interested in how institutions may help maintain privileges of some groups and keep others subservient

24. Conflict Perspective • The Feminist view • Sees inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization • Often allied with conflict theory • Broadened social behavior by extending analysis beyond male point of view

25. Interactionist Perspective • Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole • Humans viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects • Nonverbal communication: Includes gestures, facial expressions, and postures • Manipulation of symbols seen in dress codes

26. What is the Scientific Method? • Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem • Defining the problem • Reviewing the literature • Formulating the hypothesis • Selecting the research design and collecting and analyzing data • Developing the conclusion

27. Scientific Method • Defining the Problem • Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept • Reviewing the Literature • Refines problem under study

28. Scientific Method • Formulating the Hypothesis • Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables • Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions • Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another • Dependent variable: Action depends on influence of the independent variable

29. Scientific Method • Formulating the Hypothesis (continued) • Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other • Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another • Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

30. Figure 2-3: Causal Logic – page 36

31. Major Research Designs • Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically • Surveys • Observation • Experiments • Existing sources

32. Surveys • Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think • Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning • Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent

33. Ethnography • Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community • Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation • Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates

34. Surveys • Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form • Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

35. Experiments • Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables • Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable • Control group: Not exposed to independent variable • Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

36. Use of Existing Sources • Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data • Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

37. Scientific Method • Collecting and Analyzing Data • Selecting the Sample • Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population • Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected • Snowball samples (Convenience Samples): participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

38. Scientific Method • Collecting and Analyzing Data • Ensuring Validity and Reliability • Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied • Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results

39. Scientific Method • Developing the Conclusion • Supporting the Hypothesis • Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis • Controlling for other factors • Control variable: factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

40. Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method – page 33

41. Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States – page 35 Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233.

42. Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income – page 37 Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03.

43. Ethics of Research • Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) • Maintain objectivity and integrity in research • Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity • Protect subjects from personal harm • Preserve confidentiality • Seek informed consent • Acknowledge collaboration and assistance • Disclose sources of financial support

44. Using Statistics • Percentage: Shows portion of 100 • Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values • Mode: Single most common value in a series of values • Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values