T EN S TEPS TO A DVANCED R EADING

Chapter Five: Relationships II Besides relationships involving addition and time, there are three other common types of relationships: • Relationships that involveillustration • Relationships that involvecomparison and contrast • Relationships that involvecause and effect

These relationships all involve transitional words and phrases, which are like signs on the road that guide travelers.

ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration Which item below is easier to understand? A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not give you a cold. B. Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance, getting a chill will not give you a cold.

ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration Which item below is easier to understand? A. Some common beliefs are really myths. Getting a chill will not give you a cold. B. Some common beliefs are really myths. For instance, getting a chill will not give you a cold. Explanation The words for instance make the second item easier to understand. They make it clear that the belief a chill will lead to a cold is an example of a myth. For instance and other words and phrases like it are illustration words.

ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration Illustration words indicate that an author will provide one or more examples to develop and clarify a given idea. Here are some common words that show illustration: Illustration Words (for) example including (as an) illustration one (for) instance specifically to illustrate once such as to be specific

ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration In the sentences below, notice how the illustration words signal that one or more examples are coming. •Although they are children’s stories, famous fairy tales such as “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Snow White” are clearly filled with dark symbolic meanings. •A number of famous historical figures, including Beethoven, Charles Dickens, and Winston Churchill, suffered from depression.

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Definition and Example Definition Example Example The definition and example pattern of organization includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one or more examples.

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” B. Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. C. Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.”

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. Informal problems often call for a heuristic—a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. For instance, anyone who has ever played a card game such as hearts is familiar with the heuristic to “Get rid of high cards first.” Another example is the situation in which a student tries to decide whether to take a particular course and follows the advice to “Ask friends how they liked the instructor.” Explanation The paragraph begins with a definition of heuristic. The second and third sentences provide examples of the term. Each example is signaled by an illustration word or phrase.

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern • Textbook authors often provide definitions of important terms, followed by examples. They usually set off the terms they are defining in italic or boldface type. •When reading and taking notes on a textbook, always do two things: 1 Underline key definitions. 2 Write an “Ex” in the margin next to a helpful example for each definition.

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. (1)The planning fallacy refers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project andwhen. (4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning! 1. What term is being defined? 2. Which sentence contains the definition? 3. In which sentence does the example begin?

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern (1)The planning fallacyrefers to the fact that people consistently overestimate how quickly and easily they will achieve a goal and underestimate the amount of time or effort that will be required to reach that goal. (2)In a study that examined the planning fallacy, college students were asked to list an academic project that had to be completed within the next week and to estimate when they intended to begin the project, when they expected to complete the project, and how many hours they expected to put into it. (3)A week later, the students were asked if they had completed the project andwhen. (4)Although all the students had estimated that they would complete the project comfortably in the time indicated, one week later more than half the projects remained incomplete. (5)Those that had been completed had typically taken, on average, nearly five days longer than had been estimated. (6)So much for planning! 1. What term is being defined? 2. Which sentence contains the definition? 3. In which sentence does the example begin? planning fallacy sentence 1 sentence 2

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison Which item below is easier to understand? A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward. B. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison Which item below is easier to understand? A. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. In a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward. B. As a fish swims, it moves its tail, applying force against the water. The water, in turn, propels the fish forward. Similarly, in a rocket motor, forces are exerted by hot gases that accelerate out the tail end, propelling the rocket forward. Explanation In the second item, the word similarly makes it clear that the author is comparing two forces. Similarly and other words like it are comparison words.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use a comparison transition to show that a second idea is like the first one in some way. Here are some common words that show comparison: Comparison Words (just) as both in like fashion in a similar fashion (just) like equal(ly) in like manner in a similar manner alike resemble similar(ly) (in) the same way same likewise similarity (in) common

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison In the sentences below, notice how the comparison words show that things are alike in some way. •During the American Civil War, people in the North and the South were equally anguished by the bloody division of the country. •Very young and very old people resemble one another in their dependence upon those around them.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast Which item below is easier to understand? A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter. B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast Which item below is easier to understand? A. The movie was boring and pointless. It featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter. B. The movie was boring and pointless even though it featured a talented cast and an award-winning screenwriter. Explanation The first item is puzzling. What connection does the writer intend between the first and second sentence? The second item makes it clear that the writer is disappointed that the movie fell short despite its cast and screenwriter. Even though and words and phrases like it are contrast words.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast Contrast words signal that an author is pointing out differences between subjects. Authors use them to show how two things differ in one or more ways. Here are some common words that show contrast: Contrast Words but instead (of) even though difference yet in contrast as opposed to different(ly) however on the other hand in spite of differ (from) although on the contrary despite unlike nevertheless converse(ly) rather than while still opposite

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast In the sentences below, notice how the contrast words signal that one idea is different from another idea. •In most Western cultures, it is considered normal to marry for love. However, in places where arranged marriages are the norm, it is assumed that love will follow marriage. •While mammals have internal mechanisms that regulate body temperature, cold-blooded animals such as lizards must regulate their temperature by external means, such as basking on warm sunny rocks.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern Comparison Contrast is different from is like A B A B The comparison-contrast pattern shows how two things are alike or how they are different, or both.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.However, gender differences remain in career choice and development. B. Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force. C. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their husbands’, especially when children are involved.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. Women’s labor force participation is approaching that of men’s, with 60 percent of adult women (versus 74 percent of men) in the labor force. However, gender differences remain in career choice and development. At present, married women still subordinate their career goals to their husbands’, especially when children are involved. Explanation The first sentence introduces the idea that women’s labor force participation is becoming comparable to that of men’s. The second sentence presents the main idea, that gender differences remain. It is introduced with the contrast wordhowever. The final sentence gives an example of a significant difference.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. (1)Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might expect the content of their dreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has been true. (2)Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and indoor events. (3)In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events. (4)But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become more similar, so have their dreams. (5)In one recent study, the content of men’s and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. (6)Only two differences showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women were more likely to dream about their anxieties. 1. Is the paragraph comparing, contrasting, or both? 2. What two things are being compared and/or contrasted? 3. What are three of the comparison and/or contrast signal words used in the paragraph?

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison and/or Contrast Pattern Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. (1)Men and women, of course, often have different concerns, so we might expect the content of theirdreams to differ—and until recently, at least, that has been true. (2)Typically, women have been more likely than men to dream about children, family members, familiar characters, friendly interactions, household objects, clothes, and indoor events. (3)In contrast, men have been more likely than women to dream about strangers, weapons, violence, sexual activity, achievement, and outdoor events. (4)But as the lives and concerns of the two sexes have become more similar, so have their dreams. (5)In one recent study, the content of men’s and women’s dreams bore a close resemblance. (6)Only two differences showed up: Men were more likely to dream about behaving aggressively, while women were more likely to dream about their anxieties. 1. Is the paragraph comparing, contrasting, or both? 2. What two things are being compared and/or contrasted? 3. What are three of the comparison and/or contrast signal words used in the paragraph? Both Men’s and women’s dreams Comparison words: similar, resemblance Contrast words: different, differ, In contrast, But, differences, while

CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Which item below is easier to understand? A. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month. Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell. B. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell.

CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Which item below is easier to understand? A. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month. Car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell. B. The best time to buy a new car is near the end of the month because car dealers often have a monthly quota of cars to sell. Explanation The word because in the second item makes very clear just why the end of the month is the best time to buy a car. Because and words like it are cause and effect words.

CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Cause and effect words signal that the author is explaining the reason why something happened or the resultof something happening. Here are some common words that show cause and effect: Cause and Effect Words therefore so owing to because (of) thus (as a) result effect reason (as a) consequence results in cause explanation consequently leads (led) to if…then accordingly due to since affect depend(s) on

CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect In the sentences below, notice how the cause and effect wordsintroduce a reasonfor something or the result of something. •Young babies have weak necks and relatively heavy heads. Consequently, it is important to support the baby’s head firmly when you hold him or her. •Do not refrigerate potatoes. The reason is that a potato’s starch will turn to sugar at low temperatures, making the vegetable taste odd.

CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern Cause and Effect Cause and Effect Cause Effect Effect Effect Effect Cause Cause Cause An author uses the cause and effect pattern to show why something happens or the effects of something that has happened.

CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and completed suicides. B. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and psychological difficulties as well. C. Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.

CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst. Not only can it cause economic distress; it can result in health problems and psychological difficulties as well. Also, unemployment leads to an increased rate of attempted and completed suicides. Explanation The paragraph begins with the general idea: “Losing one’s job is difficult at best and devastating at worst.” Next comes a detailed explanation of the results, signaled by cause and effect words.

ILLUSTRATION The Cause and Effect Pattern Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. (1)During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged patrons to use the toilet. (2)People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before they entered a stall. (3)Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the restrooms clean. (4)But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. (5)For one thing, they angered patrons. (6)People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset when they discovered they had to pay. (7)Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. (8)In addition, pay toilets caused more trouble than they were worth. (9)Employees had to be called in so often to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn’t worth a few more dollars. (10)A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from women’s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay regardless while males could use the urinals for free. (11)Rather than spending money on high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use. 1. What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph? 2. What are the three causes discussed? 3. What three cause and effect words are used in the paragraph?

ILLUSTRATION The Cause and Effect Pattern Read the textbook paragraph below and then answer the questions. (1)During the 1950s and 1960s, airports, bus terminals, and train stations often charged patrons to use the toilet. (2)People would have to pay a ten- to twenty-five-cent fee before they entered a stall. (3)Owners hoped that the fee would help pay for the cost of keeping the restrooms clean. (4)But for several reasons, pay toilets failed miserably. (5)For one thing, they angered patrons. (6)People accustomed to accessing a restroom for free became upset when they discovered they had to pay. (7)Many outraged bathroom-users vandalized the stalls and trashed the rooms in response, making cleanup even more expensive. (8)In addition, pay toiletscausedmore trouble than they were worth. (9)Employees had to be called in so often to fix broken locks that companies gradually realized the extra work wasn’t worth a few more dollars. (10)A final explanation why pay toilets failed is that they triggered lawsuits from women’s groups who claimed the toilets were unfair because females were forced to pay regardless while males could use the urinals for free. (11)Rather than spending money on high maintenance and lawsuits, companies opened the bathrooms for free use. 1. What is the single effect being discussed in the paragraph? 2. What are the three causes discussed? 3. What three cause and effect words are used in the paragraph? A. They angered patrons. B. They caused more trouble than they were worth. C. They triggered lawsuits from women’s groups. The failure of pay toilets reasons, caused, explanation

CHAPTER REVIEW In this chapter, you learned about three kinds of relationships that authors use to make their ideas clear: •Definitions and examples — To help readers understand the important ideas and terms in a subject, textbook authors often take time to include key definitions (often setting them off in italic or boldface) and examples of those definitions. When reading a textbook, it is usually a good idea to mark off both definitions and examples. (Underline each definition, and put Ex in the margin next to each example.) — Transition words that signal the definition and example pattern include for example, for instance, to illustrate, and such as. •Comparison and/or contrast — Authors often discuss how two things are alike or how they are different, or both. — Transition words that signal comparisons include alike and similar. — Transition words that signal contrasts include but, however, and in contrast. (Chapter Review continues on next slide)

CHAPTER REVIEW, continued •Cause and effect — Authors often discuss the reasons why something happens or the effects of something that has happened. — Transition words that signal causes include reason and because. — Transition words that signal effects include therefore, consequently, and as a result. Note that pages 212–216 in the textbook list and offer practice in all the transitions and patterns of organization covered in “Relationships I” and “Relationships II.” The next chapter—Chapter 6—will sharpen your ability to make inferences in reading.

T EN S TEPS TO A DVANCED R EADING