Astronomía Extragaláctica y Cosmología Observacional

1. Depto. de Astronomía (UGto) Astronomía Extragaláctica y Cosmología Observacional Astronomía Extragaláctica y Cosmología Observacional Prof. Dr. César A. Caretta

2. Depto. de Astronomía (UGto) Astronomía Extragaláctica y Cosmología Observacional Lecture 1 Morphological Classification of Galaxies • Brief History • before the concept of galaxies – the nebulæ • first observations • first theoretical-philosophical proposals • catalogs of nebulæ • attempts to discover the nature of the nebulæ • the “Great Debate” • “The Realm of Nebulæ” • movie • Classification systems • the Hubble “tuning-fork” diagram • extensions to the Hubble sequence • non-optical bands • new proposals for classification systems • the morphological types of galaxies

3. First observations • 964 d.C. – Abd al-Rahman al-Safi [Persia]: • notes the observation of Al Bakr • (Andromeda) “Book of Fixed Stars” • 1519 – Fernão de Magalhães [ocean]: notes • observation of Magellanic Clouds M31 (NOAO, EUA) Milky-Way (G. Garradd, Australia) Magellanic Clouds (MSO, Australia)

4. First observations • 1576 – Thomas Digges [England]: “breaks” the • fixed sphere of stars • “A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes” • 1610 – Galileo Galilei [Italy]: resolves the MW • (Milky Way) into stars with his telescope • “Sidereus Nuncius” and “The Sideral Messenger” Milky-Way (C. Cook)

5. First theoretical-philosophical proposals • 1750 – Thomas Wright [England]: stars distributed in • shells, MW is one of these shells • “An Original Theory or New Hypothesis of the Universe” • 1755 – Immanuel Kant [Germany]: diffuse (nebulous) • celestial objects are “island universes”, • similar to the MW • “Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie Des Himmels”

6. 1654 – G. B. Hodierna • “De admirandis coeli characteribus” (41 nebulae) • 1755 – A. N. L. de La Caille • (42 nebulae in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere – South Africa) • 1784 – Charles Messier • “Catalogue de nébuleuses et des amas d’etoiles que l’on découvre parmi les étoiles fixes, sur • l’horizon de Paris” (103 nebulae) – M1 to M110 now • http://www.seds.org/messier/ • http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/2mass/gallery/messiercat.html • 1864 – John Herschel (results of Herschel family work) • “The General Catalogue of Nebulæ” (5079 nebulae) • 1888-1908 – John L.E. Dreyer • “New General Catalogue of Nebulæ” (NGC) 15000 • “Index Catalogues” (IC) • http://ngcic.org/dss/dss_ngc.htm M1 M110 • Catalogs of nebulæ

7. Attempts to discover the nature of nebulæ (the Herschel family) • F. Wilhelm Herschel • Karoline Lucretia Herschel • John F. W. Herschel Largest telescopes of XVIII century (1,3m) Discovery of Netuno (1781) Planetary Nebulæ (1784) • 1787 – first observational model for MW (William) • 1791 – two types of nebulæ: (i) luminous fluid • (ii) star system • 1864 – spiral nebulæ avoid the MW (John)

8. Attempts to discover the nature of nebulæ (the Herschel family) Distribution of 14650 galaxies of the catalogs UGC, ESO and MCG http://www.eso.org/~mhilker/Gallery/gallery_lect.html

9. N. Nièpce (1826) J. M. Daguérre (1839) J. Herschel (1839) H. Draper (1880) – photographic plates (Orion) • Attempts to discover the nature of nebulæ (new techniques and tools) • 1797 – Pierre S. de Laplace [France]: nebular hypothesis • for the formation of solar system • “Exposition du Système du Monde” • 1826 – Photography • 1832 – Thomas Henderson [Cape Obs., South Africa]: • measures the parallax of αCent • 1838 – Friedrich W. Bessel [Germany]: announces the first • measurement of a stellar parallax (61 Cygni)

10. Attempts to discover the nature of nebulæ (new techniques and tools) Leviathan: 1.8 m (72”) M51 • 1845-1850 – William Parsons, the Lord Rosse [Ireland]: spiral nebulæ • (M51, M99, M33, M74, M101) • 1864 – William Huggins [England]: first spectroscopic observations of • diffuse nebulæ (NGC6543: 3 lines: H, N and “nebulium” = OIII) ~1868 70 nebulae: 1/3 emission line spectra (like M42) 2/3 stelar spectra (“white”) (like M31) N6543

11.  15 kpc  100 kpc • The “Great Debate” • 1906-1922 – Jacobus C. Kapteyn [Netherlands]: counts • of stars in 206 zones (Kapteyn Model) • “First Attempt at a theory of the arrangement and motion of the sideral system” • 1912-1917 – Vesto M. Slipher [Lowell Obs., USA]: • measured radial velocities of spirals • 1918 – Harlow Shapley [1.5m (60”), Mt. Wilson • Obs. USA]: distr. of Globular Clusters • (Shapley Model) • 1916-1923 – Adriaan van Maanen • [Mt. Wilson Obs, USA]: • reported detection of “high • speed” rotation (T  105 yrs) • on M33 and M101 • (not confirmed later) 1913 – 4 ( 3 redshifts, M31 blueshift) 1914 – 12 (11 redshifts, M31 blueshift) 1925 – 43 (41 redshifts, 2 blueshifts)

12. the size of the MW • existence of external galaxies Opposing views in 2 fundamental issues N891 • The “Great Debate” • 1920 – the Great Debate [Nac. Academy of Science, USA] • Harlow Shapley lecture and paper (1921) • Spiral nebulae are members of the Great Galaxy • globular clusters are major structure elements of MW • MW has lower surface brightness than spiral nebulæ • MW stars are redder, on mean, than spirals • 1885 (super)nova on M31, much brighter to be extragalactic • rotation of spirals (van Maanen), would have supraluminal velocities if extragalactic absorption • Herbert Curtis lecture and paper (1921) • Spiral nebulae are “island universes”, like the MW • Kapteyn model – Shapley distances are overestimated • all other novæ on spirals are fainter than in MW (M31 ~100 kpc) • spiral nebulæ avoid the MW plane (J. Herschel) • spiral diameters have a large angular range (large dist. range) • spirals have large radial velocities (Slipher), would escape from MW • edge-on spirals present a dark band, like MW plane absorption

13. “The Realm of Nebulæ” • 1912 – Henrietta S. Leavitt [Harvard College • Obs, USA]: discovered the • period-luminosity relation for Cepheid • variables • 1925-1929 – Edwin Hubble [2.5m (100”), • Mt. Wilson Obs., USA]: • measured distances for N6822, • M33and M31(300 kpc) using Cepheids • 1929 – E. Hubble: Hubbles’s Law (expansion of the • Universe): v = H0 D • 1936 – E. Hubble: “The Realm of Nebulæ” • (Hubble sequence...)

14. Normal Spirals Ellipticals Irregulars (I, II) Barred Spirals • The Hubble “tuning-fork” diagram EARLY → LATE UNCLASSIFIED [Hubble 1926, ApJ 64, 321; Hubble 1936 “The Realm of Nebulae”; Sandage 1975, “Galaxies and the Universe”] SBbc (NGC 1300) IrrII (SMC) E0 (M89) E5 (M59) Sa (M96)

15. b a * Do not confuse with “eccentricity” Є=  1– b2/a2 • The Hubble “tuning-fork” diagram: criteria Ellipticals – En ε = (1  b/a) ellipticity* n = 10ε E6 (M110) No ellipticals more flattened than E7 exist, probably because there is a stability limit for non rotating systems E5 (M59) E4 (M49) E1 (M87) E0 (M89) E2 (M60)

16. The Hubble “tuning-fork” diagram: criteria • Normal (and Barred) Spirals –S(B)a, S(B)b, S(B)c • a → spiral arms tightly wound and smooth • (not resolved into stars or HII regions), • and dominant central bulge or bar • b → spiral arms more open and resolved, • smaller bulge or bar • c → spiral arms very open, patchy and resolved • into stars, star clusters and HII regions, • bulge or bar not prominent • Order of importance: • openness of the winding of the spiral arms, • size of the bulge or central bar relative to the disc (B/D), • degree of resolution of the arms into stars and HII regions Sa (M96) Sb (M31) Sc (M74) SBa (NGC 4643) SBb (M95) SBc (NGC 1365)

17. The Hubble “tuning-fork” diagram IrrII (M82) IrrI (LMC) IrrII (N5195) IrrI (SMC) Irregulars – IrrI, IrrII I → similar to the Magellanic Clouds II → abnormal galaxies, peculiar

18. S0 (NGC 3115) • Extensions to the Hubble sequence • 1940 – Shapley & Paraskevopoulos [Proc. N. Ac. Sc. 26, 31]: • added the S(B)d type {between S(B)c and Irr I} • 1951 – Spitzer & Baade [ApJ 113, 413]: first reference to • lenticular galaxies (already observed by Hubble) – • with discs but not spiral arms • 1954 – Gerárd de Vaucouleurs [AJ 60, 126]: discovered • a weak spiral structure in LMC • 1959 – G. de Vaucouleurs [Handbuch of Physik 53, 275]: • introduced intermediate types and fine classifications: SBb(r) (M95) • transition between Sp types: a, ab, b, bc, c • extension of the sequence beyond S(B)c: cd, d, dm, m, Im and I0 • transition between “Ordinary” and Barred Sp: SA, SAB and SB • presence or absence of rings: R, (r), (rs), (sr) and (s)

19. Extensions to the Hubble sequence: de Vaucouleurs criteria Extensions: S(B)d→ later spirals (weakly chaotic) S(B)m→ transition Sp/Irr (LMC) Im→ very irregular and loose (SMC) I0→ chaotic, very rich in gas and SF regions Rings: s→ spiral arms begin directly at the nucleus or a bar rs, sr→ intermediate rings r→ spiral arms begin at a ring R→ external ring Bars: A→ unbarred AB→ weakly barred B→ barred Obscuring matter: S0-→ free S0→ intermediate amount S0+→ dark band

20. Extensions to the Hubble sequence: classification volume

21. E S0 Sa Sb Sc IrrI IrrII E- E0 E+ S0- S00 S0+ S0a Sa Sab Sb Sbc Sc Scd Sd Sdm Sm Im I0 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 • Extensions to the Hubble sequence: T stage • 1974 – G. De Vaucouleurs [In The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies, • ed. J.R. Shakeshaft]:

22. Morphological Classification • Some comments on Morphological Classification: • they were defined from the appearance of galaxies in photographic plates (optical) • they refer primarily to intrinsic luminous galaxies, but there exists a large population of dwarf galaxies (van den Bergh, 1960) (as luminosity decreases, first the rings become invisible, then the spiral arms, and finally the bar and disc – dwarfs are more frequently E and Irr) • the word “normal” for unbarred spirals and lenticulars do not mean that they are more common than barred: about 30% of the spirals and S0s are classified as barred, but this includes only the most extreme examples since this pattern may be unseen on near edge-on galaxies • although other classification systems were proposed, the Hubble sequence is still themost used currently since it retains the main features (and thus accommodates the great majority of bright galaxies), and it correlates well with some astrophysical properties like bulge/disc ratio, gas content, star-formation strength, spectrum, integrate colors, chemical composition of ISM, etc • classifying galaxies is not an unambiguous task: since it is subjective in some aspects, distinct observers may classify the same object differently

23. New proposals for classification systems... • 1958 – Morgan (Yerkes) system [PASP 70, 364]: based strictly on the • prominence of disc and bulge (E, S, B, I, D, N, L, db), on inclination • (classes 1-7) and on a spectroscopic type corresponding to the nearest • stellar equivalent (a, f, g, k) • {only the N (light dominated by an unresolved nucleus) , D/cD [(supergiant) • spherical galaxies with extended envelopes] and db (dumbbell) are still used • from this system} • 1960 – Sidney van den Bergh [ApJ 131, 215]: proposed a parallel sequence • of “anemic” spirals (A), putting the tuning-fork as a trident {anemic • spirals are only common on rich clusters...}, and a lum. • class (I-V) based on the degree of order of the spiral • pattern {luminosity correlates with definition of structures!} • 1982 – Elmegreen & Elmegreen[MNRAS 201, 1021]: • proposed 12 arm classes: from chaotic/fragmented • (1, called “flocculent”) to well-defined (12, called • “grand design”) {classes correlate with luminosity} • 1996 – Kormendy & Bender [ApJL 464, L119]  : • disky/boxy shaped ellipticals and bulges...

24. New proposals for classification systems... • 1997 – S. van den Bergh • [AJ 113, 2054]  : • proposed another • “volume” • classification system • to include the dwarf • galaxies (discovered • by Shapley in 1939 • [Proc. N. Ac. Sc. • USA 25, 565]) and • the cDs (discovered • by Matthews et al. • in 1964 • [ApJ 140, 35])

25. X-rays UV Opt near IR far IR radio ROSAT satellite UIT (Columbia shuttle) 1.3m tel. (KPNO) 2MASS IRAS (60μm) VLA only high energy sources: young star clusters (obscured yellow bulge (old stars) old stars of bulge warm dust (normaly SF sites with no dust AGN and close binaries by dust) and weak AGN + blue SF regions (spiral dominate, arms less associated to SF absorption [ionized gas + arms defined by dust) define (less absorption) regions – hot stars) nonthermal (magn. field)] • Non-optical bands • classification in photographic plates (usually in blue light) loose certain components of galaxies that are not bright in this band • galaxies at a substantial redshift have their UV light seen in the blue band! • in other bands, other physical properties dominate the galaxy emission observing in the band B V R I J H K L M you see the B band at z 0.0 0.24 0.48 0.81 1.74 2.66 3.92 6.75 9.67 • Bill Keel’s homepage: • http://www.astr.ua.edu/gifimages/m81series2.html

26. E1 (M87, VirgoA) S0 (M102, N5866) • The morphological types • Ellipticals: • have an elliptical appearance (look as spheroids or ellipsoids) • have no particular structural features • have no or little gas, but a population of relatively old stars and globular clusters • their luminosity decreases very regularly from center to edge • their absolute magnitudes range from among the most luminous galaxies known (MB -24), to dwarf ellipticals (dE) • they include the most massive galaxies known • Lenticulars (or S0): • normally they have a ‘lens-like’ shape • have two main components: bulge and disc, but without spiral arms • have large bulges, with smooth light distribution like the elliptical galaxies, and axial ratios b/a < 0.3 • the disc is very thin and sometimes may contain some dust (obscuring material)

27. SBbc (NGC 1300) I0 (M82) • The morphological types • Spirals: • have a disc-like appearance, with more or less conspicuous spiral arms of enhanced luminosity, emanating from their central regions • central bulge, or spheroidal component, resembles ellipticals but is small • sometimes present a bar crossing the bulge, from the end of which the spiral arms originate (normally less tightly wound) • their discs are very flattened and with less steeply declining brightness • contain much gas, young stars and active regions of star formation (HII regions) • double spiral pattern is common, also a remarkable degree of symmetry with respect to the centre, but many more complicated configuration of spiral structure are known • Irregulars: • have amorphous shapes (with no nucleus, no disc, no spiral arms, and so on) • are very rich in interestellar matter and young stars, and are often the location of major outbursts of star formation

28. M87 Cartwheel NGC 6872 + IC 4970 • The morphological types • Peculiar (and interacting galaxies): • have a strange appearance (with tails, jets, ring-like structures, distortions, etc), normally due to gravitational interactions or collision between galaxies • they are amongst the most luminous extragalactic sources in the far IR due to enhanced SF • there is only a small % of peculiar systems currently, but this increases dramatically as we look further and further back in time! • they are usually classified as having some Hubble type plus a “p”, indicating the peculiarity Antennae

29. The morphological types • Dwarfs: • are much less luminous (and massive) than “normal” galaxies • are hardly seen at distances far beyond the LG • are the most abundant galaxies in the Universe, and “building blocks” • frequently they orbit around larger galaxies as satellites • most have low surface brightness • may be of several types: • dE– less luminous E (no current SF) • dSph– very low surface brightness spheroids (more massive, but less centrally concentrated than GC), similar to dIrr in struct. • dS0– less luminous lenticulars • dS– the last to be discovered [Schombert et al. 1995] • dIrrordIm– less luminous irregulars (show active SF) • BCD– blue compact dwarves (with centrally concentrated SF, or HII galaxies, if spread), the only ones with high surf. brightness dE (M32) dSph (Cass. Dwarf) dS0 (N4431) dIrr (IC 10) dS (N5474) BCD (N1705)

30. The morphological types • Low Surface Brightness Galaxies (LSB): • most are dwarves, but there are many “normal” LSB • their abundance (frequency) and properties are very badly known since they are very hard to detect LSB (UGC 285) LSB (IC 342) LSB (UGC 7332) LSB (UGC 7698)

31. Further readings: • Papers: • V. Trimble, 1995. PASP 107, 1133 – 1920 Shapley-Curtis Debate • A. Sandage, 1975. In “Galaxies and the Universe”, eds. A. Sandage, M. Sandage & J. Kristian, Univ. Chicago Press – Morphological classification of galaxies from before Hubble to 1975 • A. Naim et al. 1995. MNRAS 274, 1107 – Expert astronomers  machines in classifying galaxies • Books: • F. Combes, P. Boisse, A. Mazure & A. Blanchard 1995. “Galaxies and Cosmology” (A&A Library), Springer-Verlag – chapter 1 • J. Binney & M. Merrifield 1998. “Galactic Astronomy” (Princeton Series in Astrophysics), Princeton Univ. Press – chapter 4 • M.S. Longair 1998. “Galaxy Formation” (A&A Library), Springer-Verlag – chapter 3 • M.H. Jones & R.J.A. Lambourne 2003. “An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology”, Cambridge Univ. Press – chapter 2 Internet: • http://www.astr.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/–Bill Keel’s homepage • http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/basic_data.html