Introduction

1. CURRICULUM DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND REVIEWBYDr. BashirMainaDepartment of Educational Foundations and CurriculumAhmadu Bello University, Zaria Being a Paper Presented at Orientation Workshop Organized for Heads of Department , Deans of Faculties and Director s on 22nd July, 2016 in the Assembly Hall, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

2. Introduction Education plays a significant role in preparing the young people who will take responsibility for the country in future. For education to play this part effectively, it must address the intellectual, personal and social development of young citizens. This has to be at the time when ideas about the goals of education change. Being a planned sequence of learning experiences, curriculum is the element that influences how well young citizens are prepared for their futures through education. This makes curriculum closely associated with education. Being a special area of study, curriculum plays a significant role in arranging, organizing and translating the vision of educational programmes into reality

3. Introduction (continue) According to Alexander (2005) curriculum is a planned programme of learning opportunities aimed at achieving broad goals and related objectives. This means curriculum is a composite whole, which include the learner the teacher, methodologies for teaching and learning anticipated and un anticipated experience output and outcomes possible within environments in institutions of learning. Curriculum influences the education of learners because it sets the level of expectation of their learning. It was noted by Mckimm (2007) that high performing countries set high expectations through high quality teaching, school and system leadership, and commitment support from families, communities, business and industry. Providing high-quality education is valuable to the community at large and justifies people’s investments of time, effort and resources.

4. Introduction (continue) • It is expected that curriculum of the 21st century should reflect on understanding and acknowledgement of the changing nature of learners and the challenges and demands that continue to shape their learning in the future. Young people as learners need to be provided with a wide and adaptive set of skills to prepare them for changing expectations of society and contribute in creating a more productive, sustainable and just society. This calls for curriculum design, development and review in our institutions of learning.

5. What is Curriculum Design? Curriculum design refers to consideration of aims, intended learning outcomes, syllabus, learning and teaching methods and assessment Curriculum Design entails the following: • analysis of social needs; • translating the needs into course/general/learning/terminal objectives; • splitting the objectives into specific objectives; • grouping the specific objectives into subjects; • deriving the subjects from the above classification; • specifying enabling objectives; • unitizing each subject matter; • specification of required time ; and • syllabus formulation.

6. Curriculum Design(continue) Curriculum design’ is generally understood as a high-level process defining how learning could take place within a specific programme of study, leading to specific unit(s) of credit or qualification. The curriculum design process leads to the production of core programme/module documents such as a course/module description, validation documents, prospectus entry, and course handbook. This process involves consideration of resource allocation, marketing of the course, and learners’ final outcomes and destinations, as well as general learning and teaching approaches and requirements. It could be said to answer the questions ‘What needs to be learned?’, ‘What resources will this require?’, and 'How will this be assessed?'

7. Curriculum Design(continue) In many nations, specific benchmark standards are set for education to ensure that children across the nation achieve a similar level of education, Baron and Enstey (2006). For example, a government may dictate when children should start to learn multiplication and division, set standards for reading ability, and so forth. One aspect of curriculum design involves reviewing these standards and determining how they can be met or exceeded. Another aspect involves thinking about the students themselves, and what type of curriculum would be most appropriate. Students come from a wide variety of cultural and class backgrounds, and curriculum design should not be a one size fits all approach.

8. Curriculum Design(continue) Flexibility is another important aspect of curriculum design. Many classroom teachers are working with students of different levels of ability, and they need to be able to adjust the curriculum to keep all of the students engaged and learning, Blackmore (2002). It may also be necessary to change the pace of a curriculum to deal with problems as they arise; for example, a class might have more trouble grasping a concept than was expected, and the teacher needs to be able to spend more time on it, rather than racing on to the next subject and leaving students confused. Everyone involved in teaching has a role to play in curriculum design. When starting to teach that role is usually confined to designing sessions, whereas with a lectureship usually comes the need to design or modify modules and work as part of a departmental team on course design.

9. Curriculum Design(continue) In designing a curriculum, whether for a whole degree programme or for a particular unit, you are planning an intellectual 'journey' for your students - a series of experiences that will result in them learning what you intend them to learn, Dennis (2002). Typically these experiences will include attendance at lectures and classes, work in small groups, private study, preparing work for assessment and so on. Curriculum design is made up of consideration of aims, intended learning outcomes, syllabus, learning and teaching methods, and assessment. Each of these elements is described below.It also involves ensuring that the curriculum is accessible and inclusive, i.e. that students with disabilities, and from all backgrounds, can participate in it with an equal chance of success, Kotler (2003).

10. Aims of the Curriculum The aims of the curriculum form the basis for undertaking the learning 'journey' - its overall purpose or rationale from the student's point of view. For example, a degree programme may aim, among other things, to prepare students for employment in a particular profession. Unit within a given programme may aim to provide an understanding of issues on descriptive statistics. The stated aims of a curriculum inform the students what the result of studying it is likely to be. The aims are to be seen as educational purposes of the curriculum. One of your aims in offering the programme is to attract more students, but it is not the sole aim of the curriculum your offer.

11. Intended Learning outcomes Learning outcomes are what students will learn if they follow the curriculum successfully (i.e. if they complete the programme or unit and pass the assessment), Peters (2004) More often the phrase 'intended learning outcomes' is used to refer to the anticipated fruits of completing the planned 'journey'

12. Intended Learning outcomes (cont) According to Riddll (1996) In framing learning outcomes it is good practice to: express each outcome in terms of what successful students will be able to do. For example, rather than stating 'students will understand why....' say 'students will be able to summarise the main reasons why...' This helps students to focus on what you are expecting them to achieve and it assists you in devising appropriate assessment tasks

13. Intended Learning outcomes (cont) include different kinds of outcome. The most common are cognitive objectives (learning facts, theories, formulae, principles etc.) and performance outcomes(learning how to carry out procedures, calculations and processes, which typically include gathering information and communicating results). In some contexts affective outcomes are important too (developing attitudes or values, e.g. those required for a particular profession).

14. Syllabus This refers to as the 'content' of the programme or unit; the topics, issues or subjects that will be covered as it proceeds. It was opined by Tanner and Tanner (1995) the in selecting content for inclusion, educators need to bear the following principles in mind:

15. Syllabus (cont) It should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum. An effective curriculum is purposive, clearly focused on the planned learning outcomes. The inclusion of irrelevant topics, however interesting in themselves, acts as a distraction and may confuse students.

16. Syllabus (cont) it should be appropriate to the level of the programme or unit. An effective curriculum is progressive, leading students onward and building on what has gone before. Material which is too basic or too advanced for their current stage makes students either bored or baffled, and erodes their motivation to learn; it should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current research. In some disciplines, it is difficult to achieve the latter until students reach postgraduate level, but in many, it is possible for even first year undergraduates to be made aware of current research topics.

17. Learning and teaching methods These are the means by which students are engaged with the syllabus, i.e. the kinds of learning experience that the curriculum will entail. Although they will include the teaching that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.), it is important to keep in mind that the overall emphasis should be on learning and the ways it can be helped to occur. To buttressed this point, Spicer and Sadler – Smith (2006) give relevant examples, which reads:

18. Learning and teaching methods(cont) Individual study is an important element in the university curriculum and should be planned with the same care as other forms of learning. In the undergraduate curriculum especially, it is good practice to suggest specific tasks, rather than relying entirely on students to decide how best to use their private study time.

19. Learning and teaching methods(cont) • group learning is also important. Students learn from each other in ways that they cannot learn alone or from staff and the inclusion of group projects and activities can considerably enhance the curriculum. • online learning is increasingly important in many curricula and needs to be planned carefully if it is to make an effective contribution. Online materials can be a valuable support for learning and can be designed to include helpful self-assessment tasks.

20. Assessment Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive information on what they have (and have not) already learned. The process by which this information is generated is assessment, and it has three main forms as noted by Macpherson and Holt (2007)

21. Assessment (cont) a) Self assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical. b) Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other's learning. This can be viewed as an extension of self assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other's work as reliably as staff. c) Tutor assessment, in which a member of staff or teaching assistant provides commentary and feedback on the student's work.

22. Assessment (cont) Assessment may either be formative (providing feedback to help the student learn more) or summative (expressing a judgment on the student's achievement by reference to stated criteria). Most assessment tasks involve an element of both, e.g. an assignment that is marked and returned to the student with detailed comments. Summative assessment involves the allocation of marks or grades. These enable staff to make decisions about the progression of students through a programme and the award of degrees but they have limited educational value.

23. Assessment (cont) Students learn better by understanding the strengths and weaknesses of their work than by knowing the mark or grade given to it. Thus, summative assessment tasks (including unseen examinations) should include an element of formative feedback provided it is possible.

24. Principles for curriculum design The curriculum is designed on the basis of the following principles: • Challenge and enjoyment • Breadth • Progression • Depth • Personalisation and choice • Coherence • Relevance.

25. Principles for curriculum design(cont) The principles must be taken into account for all children and young people. They apply to the curriculum both at an organizational level and in the classroom and in any setting where children and young people are learners. Raffe (2010) The principles will assist teachers and schools in their practice and as a basis for continuing review, evaluation and improvement. They apply to the curriculum at national, education authority, school and individual levels and must be taken into account for all children and young people. Although all should apply at any one stage, the principles will have different emphases as a child or young person learns and develops.

26. Challenge and enjoyment Children and young people should find their learning challenging, engaging and motivating. The curriculum it to encourage high aspirations and ambitions for all. At all stages, learners of all aptitudes and abilities should experience an appropriate level of challenge, to enable each individual to achieve his or her potential. They should be active in their learning and have opportunities to develop and demonstrate their creativity, Peters (2004). There should be support to enable children and young people to sustain their effort.

27. Breadth All children and young people should have opportunities for a broad, suitably weighted range of experiences. The curriculum should be organised so that they will learn and develop through a variety of contexts within both the classroom and other aspects of school life.

28. Progression Children and young people should experience continuous progression in their learning from 3 to 18 within a single curriculum framework. Each stage should build upon earlier knowledge and achievements. Children should be able to progress at a rate which meets their needs and aptitudes, and keep options open so that routes are not closed off too early.

29. Depth There should be opportunities for children to develop their full capacity for different types of thinking and learning. As children progress, they should develop and apply increasing intellectual rigour, drawing different strands of learning together, and exploring and achieving more advanced levels of understanding.

30. Personalisation and choice The curriculum should respond to individual needs and support particular aptitudes and talents. It should give each child and young person increasing opportunities for exercising responsible personal choice as they move through their school career, Dennis (2002). Once they have achieved suitable levels of attainment across a wide range of areas of learning, the choice should become as open as possible. There should be safeguards to ensure that choices are soundly based and lead to successful outcomes.

31. Coherence Taken as a whole, children and young people's learning activities should combine to form a coherent experience. There should be clear links between the different aspects of children and young people's learning, including opportunities for extended activities which draw different strands of learning together, Dennis (2002).

32. Relevance Children and young people should understand the purposes of their activities. They should see the value of what they are learning and its relevance to their lives, present and future.

33. Who are involved in curriculum design and development? • Staff, students, alumni, External Examiners, employers and practitioners in the professions are involved. For each programme, there is a Programme Director, who chairs a Programme Committee. Programme Directors are responsible for overall monitoring and enhancing the quality of their programmes. They are also the Chief Examiners for the programmes, and monitor assessment in their programmes.

34. In performing this role, the committee draws on: research literature; staff experience, presented at workshops and conferences; university regulations and guidelines; University’s institutional surveys, Questionnaire, Graduate Employment Survey etc; student feedback from Student Evaluations of Teaching and Learning (SETL) forms and Staff-Student Consultative Committee meetings; feedback from alumni and employers of our graduates; advice from the External Examiner (an international expert in the field), etc.

35. In performing this role, the committee draws on.(cont) The proposed design of any curriculum needs approval by the institution’s approving body which is a meeting of all academic members of staff. Teachers then develop their courses, based on learning outcomes of the whole curriculum, and University educational aims.

36. In performing this role, the committee draws on.(cont) The design of curricula is research-based and tailored to the professional context. In designing the curriculum, the institution draws on theoretical and exemplary models from the international literature, and consults widely with different stakeholders to ensure the relevance and value of the curricula.

37. Curriculum Development Relating the units of the subject matter to learning resources. Choosing the appropriate strategies for curricular transaction. Suggesting the suitable media Exploring relevant learning experiences. Progressive testing of the achievement of objectives through these experiences.

38. Curriculum Development (cont) According to Primrose and Alexander (2013) Higher education curriculum around the world is witnessing a significant shift in its expectations to help address immediate and longer-term sustainable development challenges. Curriculum development is a key educational process for educational developers for schools and higher education (HE) as it allows an educational course to be designed to meet defined needs.

39. Curriculum Development (cont) There is now a growing realisation for the need to foster entrepreneurial education in HE institutions with the specific aim to encourage entrepreneurial development, skills, and awareness (Commission of the European Communities, 2006; Seikkula-Leinoetal., 2010).

40. Curriculum Development (cont) Curriculum development cycles in Higher Educational Institutes have in general become more rapid due to many factors including: competition between institutions; and the expectations of government, employers and students that an educational programme will provide the most contemporary knowledge in a particular discipline (Roffe, 2010).

41. Curriculum Development (cont) Higher education curriculum has to be directed towards meeting societal needs and aspirations in every case. It is argued that education cannot be value free and different value systems or value ideologies generate different curricula.

42. Curriculum Development (cont) As noted by Primrose and Alexander (2013) a situation analysis of curriculum development should take into account the short-term and long-term needs, interests and potential of those who are to be educated. The needs of the learner are not static. To that end, ideological, political as well as economic aims are influential factors in curriculum development.

43. Curriculum Development (cont) Curriculum development refers to the process of selecting and refining the content of an education system with an aim of implementing it in schools or educational institutions (Thungu, Wandera, Gachie and Alumande, 2008, p. 52). It involves a series of steps which include:

44. Curriculum Development (cont) Planning of learning experiences on the basis of national policies. Production of instructional materials. Trial and testing of instructional plans and educational materials. Implementation of the programme of instruction. Assessment of learning outcomes

45. Curriculum Development (cont) Curriculum development is, therefore, an improvement, change or modification on already existing educational programmes, as curriculum is never static. The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is based on specific objectives. These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of specific measurable behaviours. This model comprises four main steps:

46. Curriculum Development (cont) agreeing on broad aims which are analysed into objectives, constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives, refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its objectives, and communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual framework of the objectives (Gatawa, 1990: 30).

47. Curriculum Development (cont) You will note that in this model: Evaluation is done at each stage of the curriculum design. Content, materials and methodology are derived from the objectives. This model was seen as a relevant model in discussing the determinants of the curriculum since it spells out the need for meeting certain objectives by a country or institution.

48. Curriculum Evaluation Review is part of the evaluation process and the process takes the following order: • Intra-curricular evaluation • Teacher evaluation of students • Student evaluation of teachers • Materials evaluation • Verification of methods • Evaluation of test and examinations • Checking of learning outcomes while on the field • Curriculum the review/ improvement/change/modification • System revision

49. When is the curriculum reviewed? Evaluation and renewal are on-going at the levels of individual courses, programmes and curriculum. In recent years, comprehensive curriculum reviews and restructuring have taken place in all levels on a regular basis following the University’s guidelines.

50. Why is the curriculum reviewed? Curriculum reviews are undertaken to enhance its quality and coherence and to ensure that they continue to be responsive and relevant to rapid changes in the profession and the new demands of society. These reviews are necessary in view of the development in University or by changes in the education system.