Writing a research report and literature review

1. Writing a research report and literature review Presented by Pamela Champion Learning Skills Unit Equity and Learning Programs University of Melbourne http://www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu

2. Language and Learning Skills Unit • Workshops • Generic and department specific • Resources • Over 50 titles including free pamphlets and booklets • Individual consultations • Discuss your specific study issues or review your writing • On-line study skills and academic writing courses • AIRport Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

3. A thesis is more than a persuasive record of your research - it generally involves presenting an argument or point of view. It must say something and be substantiated with reasoned argument and evidence. If you want to be interesting as well as academically convincing, you will need to raise intriguing issues and discuss them besides presenting your outcomes (Barnes, 1995). Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

4. Issues for research students • Structuring the content • Academic writing • Writing a literature review • Critical writing • Editing • Referencing • Maintaining momentum Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

5. Theses generally must provide… • A critical review of the literature • A comprehensive investigation of the topic • Justification for the methods and techniques adopted • Exposition and interpretation of results • Conclusions and implications linked to findings and earlier discussion of topic • An answer to the research question(s) Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

6. Getting started • Know the academic requirements (expectations) • Review your writing routines and practices - are they effective and productive? • Investigate the writing style and generic conventions you are expected to produce - read successful recent theses in your discipline • Establish your research aim • Develop a regular work routine (Use a timetable) • Get a method of organising information • Establish a way of working with your supervisor • Start writing ASAP!! Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

7. What are the assessment criteria? • Find out how your thesis will be assessed – eg. What are the questions examiners will be asking • Check the faculty guidelines for Honours theses’ requirements • Review other theses for writing abstracts, chapter lengths, how the literature is incorporated, how project aims and/or research questions are articulated, how the conclusion ‘matches’ the introduction? • How are the key findings or conclusions set out? • How many references are listed? Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

8. What is your aim? • Can you identify the problem or controlling focus of your research? • Can you identify a single, over-arching yet specific aim? • Note that your aim is not necessarily the same as the hypotheses you might test or your research questions (see Evans p.86-88) • An aim will indicate the significance of the research, ie to some extent it answers the question, ‘Why?’ Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

9. Thesis structure - See the big picture • Structure may vary but should include: • Preliminaries • Introduction and background (literature) • What you did (methodology) • What you found (results) • What you think (discussion) • What you conclude • Appendices • Reference list Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

10. Preliminaries • Title page • Abstract • Declaration • Acknowledgments • Table of contents • List of tables • List of figures or illustrations Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

11. Experimental • Abstract: • Complete outline of the thesis • Introduction: • Provides context, sets up the problem addressed, limits scope and establishes specific aims • Methods: • Describes ‘how’ • Results: • Describes ‘what happened’, without interpretation • Discussion: • Interpretation of the data • Conclusion: • Makes generalisations, implications, and sometimes recommendations Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

12. INTRODUCTION Problem statement Aim Research approach 3. OWN WORK Research question/s Design, methods Results or findings Case studies, evidence 2. BACKGROUND History, geography Current theory Current practice 4. SYNTHESIS Discussion of results Implications Conclusions Adapted from Evans D. (2002) How to Write a Better Thesis or Report Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

13. Introduction and background • Introduction - rationale, context, definition of terms, methodological approach, hypotheses, research aims, thesis outline • Background - literature review, review of current knowledge, the place of your research Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

14. Introduction Problem Question, aims Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

15. What you did (methodology) • Research / case study /literature • Exploration of hypotheses • Selection of research methodology • Design of research instruments /population • Undertaking the study Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

16. What you found (results) • Factual reporting of information • Text and illustrations • Graphs & tables (May stand alone or be integrated with discussion) Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

17. What you think (Discussion) • Analysis & discussion of results • What you discovered • How it relates to existing literature • Insights, ideas, problems, questions etc • Structuring process (varies) • Relate discussion to hypothesis/ aims • Group information into associated ideas or themes • Organise using headings and sub-headings Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

18. What you make of it all (Conclusion) • Brief account of your findings (not a conclusion) • Respond to the aim/s in the first chapter • Draw conclusions from the discussion chapter and relate to the literature • Your addition to body of knowledge • Problems / further research • A conclusion involves a statement of the significance of what you have found • Conclusions should be crisp and concise Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

19. Finally • The reference material • Reference list • Bibliography • Appendix or appendices • Index (if required) Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

20. What is a literature review? • The first part of the ‘real’ thesis • Provides a context for your research focus • explains what research has preceded yours • shows where your research questions arise and fit with existing knowledge • Evaluates current literature • demonstrates you have critically reviewed the literature • Integrates reviewed literature into a logical discussion • Allows readers to understand your work Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

21. Your review should establish: • The significance and aim of the review • What approaches were taken or conclusions reached in important earlier research, by whom and when • Do these approaches agreement or conflict • The main issues or controversies which surround the topic you are researching • Gaps in previous research and new possibilities • How previous research informs your understanding and investigation of the topic • Implications for practice Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

22. Structure of a review One method of organisation may suit your area of study better than another • Chronological; early to later studies • Major authors / studies • Perspectives or positions taken on the topic • Issues or debates; key issues/ related issues • Methodology • Themes; to be dealt with in turn (thematic review) Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

23. How do I write my lit review? • mostly present tense • discussing the present problem and the current state of knowledge • explaining what your research does • some past tense • reviewing former work • discussing earlier theories Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

24. Common problems: • Locating the literature • Too much material • The literature has been reviewed before • A new, unexamined project • A cross-disciplinary project • Maintaining a focus when reading • Keeping track of all the information • Writing the lit review • Organising material • Making links between sources, and with own project Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

25. Too much material • It’s normal to be overwhelmed • Start with the most recent and/or major studies • Start with the footnotes and indexes: what names/studies are referred to again and again? • Look for recurring patterns and links - • What are the common concerns of research on the topic? • Set reasonable and limited targets – • Quantity is often less important than the quality of the literature and how it is discussed • As a final resort, consider refocussing and limiting your research topic Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

26. The literature has been reviewed before • Don’t panic - you can use other people’s reviews as a starting point for your research and reading • The different focus, methods or questions guiding your research will necessitate a different focus for your review and your analysis/critique will be original • Try to offer something different - a different organisation or conceptualisation of the material; your own evaluation of the merit and importance of the various authors/studies Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

27. Assessing your Literature review Selection and organisation of material • Have you indicated the most recent, relevant and significant research? • Is your material sensibly organised to highlight issues? Critical evaluation of the literature • Comprehensive and insightful • Clarifies the research problem and existing research • Establishes context for research Presentation style consistent and correct Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

28. Academic writing style • Clear and concise - short simple sentences • Observes academic discourse - rules for each academic discipline • Is formal - no contractions, slang, colloquialisms etc • Impersonal -usually third person • Objective - evidence driven • Accurate - information and conclusion based on acknowledged evidence Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

29. Critical thinkingAnalysis + Synthesis + Evaluation • Identifies and challenges assumptions • Imagines and explores alternatives • Compares and contrasts to existing knowledge • Recognises strengths and weaknesses • Demonstrates reflective scepticism Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

30. Clarity is the message clear, comprehensive? Accuracy is it true? Precision is it concise? Relevance how does it connect with what is known? Depth are all complexities addressed? Breadth are all issues considered? Logic does it make sense? Framework for critical thinking Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

31. Think and question when reading • What is the main purpose of the article/research? • What conceptual framework was used? • Where does this research fit with existing knowledge? • What was measured/evaluated? • How was data collected? • How appropriate was the methodology? • Are results true/accurate? • Do results link with discussion/conclusions? • Does evidence support main contention? • Is the article readable? Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

32. Writing critically • Avoid descriptive writing • Look for strengths and weaknesses • Make links between past knowledge and present learning • Link information from different sources • Make links between ideas • Develop your own perspective and articulate it in a logical way • Ask “So What?” Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

33. The language of a critical review The difficulty with this argument is that it fails to consider…/ assumes an issue in contention, namely…/ is unsupported by the literature…/ fails to consider recent developments in … These articles do not indicate … It is unclear whether men and women experience ... in the same way. In analysing the data, gender and SES were two control variables. However, the author did not consider … While Chaplin undertakes a thorough survey of the theoretical literature, professional and practical issues have not been addressed. Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

34. Data on smoking prevalence by nursing specialties show higher rates of current smoking among psychiatric (23%) gerontologic (18.2%), and emergency nurses (18%) and lower rates among pediatric critical care nurses (7.6%) and nurses working in general pediatrics, women’s health, and school settings (9.6%) (Trinkoff & Stott, 1998). Despite the evidence the nurses continue to smoke at high rates, limited support has been provided by the nursing profession to help nurses quit, and published studies have not detailed cessation strategies used by nurses who have achieved long-term abstinence (Chalmers et al, 2001; Gritz et al., 1988; Rowe, Clarke & Mcleod,1999). Nonetheless, the decline in smoking prevalence among nurses indicates the many nurses have quit smoking successfully. Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

35. Signposting/Connectives • Use these to indicate direction of your thoughts: • The author states - expresses, describes, argues, instructs, informs, contradicts or reports • Disagree - dispute, reject, differ, strongly… • Add an idea - in addition, furthermore… • Make comparisons and contrasts - although, in spite of, alternatively, similarly.…. • Illustrate or support - thus, evidence suggests, clearly, convincingly … • Summarise - finally, in summary, therefore… Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

36. When and what to reference? • Ideas we get from others, even if they are written in our own words • Quotes from other authors • Information in tables and figures also needs to be referenced Your reader is working on the assumption that anything not referenced is your original work Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

37. APA Referencing style (American Psychological Association) The APA uses an author, date format • Book - Author, date, title, place published, publisher • Journal /periodical - Author, date, title, journal,volume, page/s Use required style(APA) consistently and accurately Check style manual (or web site) for correct method of in-text citing and reference list Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

38. In text - citing • If you are quoting (copying words exactly) give: • author name, year of publication and page number “One of the most damaging characteristics of stress is impatience” (Wilson, 1985 p. 69). • Wilson (1985, p.69) states that “one of the most damaging characteristics of stress is impatience”. • To indicate use of others information / ideas give: • author name and year of publication • Impatience caused by stress is damaging (Wilson, 1985). • If you are using more than one reference to support the same point • put both authors and dates of publication in the same brackets, separated by a semi-colon • Impatience which is caused by stress can be extremely damaging (Craven, 2002; Smith, 1990; Wilson, 1985). Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

39. APA reference list: • A reference list contains details of all the references cited in your writing • A bibliography contains all the reference materials you have used whether they have been used as references or not • Your reference list should: • contain details of all the references cited • be the same referencing style used in writing • be in alphabetical order - (surname first) • is double spaced, with all lines following the first indented by 5 spaces • have the name of the book title or journal name in italics • include the publisher and city where the work was published Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

40. Keeping track of everything • Keep a research diary: note your searches, which you have a copy of, what you have read, and what you can’t get • Set up a system for keeping track of references: eg EndNote, other applications, card file • Make note of publishing details and other bibliographic information, (including library information) • Keep an ideas and thoughts journal Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

41. Edit for one thing at a time Structural editing first • Is the argument consistent across sections? • Are sections clearly connected? • Anything missing/ redundant? • Is discussion balanced? • Then proofread - Polishing and presentation • References • Sentences / grammar • Spelling, punctuation • Read your work out loud Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

42. What makes a good report? Content • The main argument (thesis) is clear, consistent and well supported • All information is relevant to topic • Critical analysis is incorporated into discussion (not all descriptive) • Strong links between literature and research • Argument is direct and explicit • Each idea is fully developed, explained and supported by literature Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

43. What makes a good report? • Presentation • Writing style is clear, concise & appropriate for discipline • Information organised logically • All ideas are well connected • Referencing style is consistent and correct • Introduction provides a context, rationale and captures readers attention • Conclusion is comprehensive and insightful Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

44. Writing expectations and issues • Good academic writing comes with time, understanding, practice and effort • Writing takes time: Does the 60:40 rule apply to your project? (60% research: 40% writing) • Developing the required standard of writing needs to be viewed as a separate project alongside the research • Mastery of your research topic and mastery of the academic discourse in your field may not proceed at the same pace or be ‘in sync’ Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

45. Establishing writing habits • Writing is a process, a craft, a practice • Have you established an effective writing routine? • Break the task into smaller ‘chunks’ - if need be, aim for one paragraph: ‘I will just write a paragraph analyzing …’ • Think about where, when, what, how and who: • Where: home, library, other • When: time of day, long or short bursts • What: set targets • How: a new section each time? • Read/think/write • Who can you ask for feedback on drafts? Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

46. Writing tips • Write, don’t edit, to develop the first draft • Write during your ‘best’ concentration times - 8am? 11pm? Do you need short blocks or long bursts? • Combine a reading block with a writing block (eg. 1.5 hours reading then 1.5 hours writing) • Develop a (short) routine to ‘settle’ yourself into writing - computer on, cup of tea, skim notes etc • Start by writing what you intend to do: compare X and Y’s approaches; explain ‘method X’; analyse data relating to question 4. (ie develop a task target) Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

47. Useful references • Barrass, R. Scientists Must Write: a guide to better writing for scientists, engineers and students. Routledge: London and NY, 2002. • Davis, L. and McKay, S. Structures and Strategies: An Introduction to Academic Writing. Macmillan: South Melbourne, 1996. • Evans, D. and Gruba, P. How to Write a Better Thesis. 2nd edition. Melbourne University Press: Carlton South, 2002. • Taylor, G. The Student’s Writing Guide for the Arts and Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989. • Williams, J. Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1990. Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne

48. Language and Learning Skills Unit • Ground Floor, 723 Swanston Street(south of Grattan St, Ph: 8344 0930llsu-enquiries@unimelb.edu.auhttp:// www.services.unimelb.edu.au/llsu/ Language and Learning Skills Unit, University of Melbourne