Living Off the Land in the Rainforest

1. Living Off the Land in the Rainforest Lewis Zimmerman Neotropical Rainforest Ecology Global Studies in Plant Biology French Guiana 2002

2. Questions to think about: • How do indigenous people use the forest for agriculture? • How does swidden work? • In addition to agriculture, how do indigenous people use the forest to meet their subsistence needs? • How does industrialized agriculture work? • What are the ecological impacts of these practices? • What are some of the present ecological concerns associated with shifting agriculture? • What is the future of shifting agriculture?

3. Subsistence strategy and ecology • The following variables contribute to the overall subsistence strategy of a group: • use of wild plants • soil fertility and exhaustion • tillage practices • introduction of novel crops • production for the market (cash crops)

4. Swidden (a.k.a. Shifting or Slash & Burn agriculture)

5. Burning

6. Swidden Agriculture • In contrast with monocultural mechanized agricultural systems, indigenous tropical forest agriculture, is characterized by a high degree of polyculture • Similar in diversity to the forest itself and has little disturbance effect on the generalized ecosystem that surrounds native gardens

7. Characteristics of Swidden (con’t) • A comparative study of four Central Brazilian Indian groups shows that while each of these groups practices polyculture to some extent, the crop mix found in their swidden plots is highly patterned (Werner, et. al., 1982) • This patterning includes single crop stands at certain stages of garden life. • Different crops are planted in the same plot from year to year, in accordance with variation in soil fertility within the swidden cycle.

8. Crop Successional Patterns

9. Swidden Technology • The technology and local knowledge of shifting cultivation is both broad and complex • Small farmers stagger, interplant and diversify their planting of crops (polyculture) • They selectively weed, manipulate tree growth • They reap a wide array of forest products; and they supplement their diet with forest game and fish

10. Rainforest Garden This garden patch is being left fallow, to be recolonized by the forest, but will yield longer term crops (e.g. fruits and nuts) for years to come.

11. Succession patterns

12. Swidden Plots

13. Ecological impacts • The traditional forest-fallow farming system, because of the method, scale and the impermanence of clearing, is non-destructive and, in many instances, actually aids in the re-establishment of the forest (Warner 1991) • Polyculture, being similar in diversity to the forest itself has little disturbing effect on the ecosystem surrounding the gardens (Werner 1982)

14. Manihot esculenta, Euphorbiaceae Primary staple for a majority of Amazonian indigenous peoples (Salick, Cellinese, and Knapp 1997). Roots provide carbohydrates after processing: boiling, roasting, type of flour, or fermenting. Tipiti

15. Processing Cassava

16. In addition to agriculture, how do indigenous people use the forest to meet their subsistence needs? • Gathering • Fishing • Hunting In those societies in which gardening is highly productive, people can spend more time on hunting and fishing and improve the overall quality of their diet.

17. Hunting and Fishing • Swidden plots and fallows attract game animals • Crop losses compensated by over planting • Provides balance • Poisons (Lonchocarpus nicou or Jaquine sp.) • Ants and termites • Palm grubs

18. Collecting • Long treks are taken to avoid over-hunting close to home • Trailsides and campsites actually planted with numerous varieties of yams, medicinal plants and fruit trees (Dufour 1990) • Deliberate attempt to increase the concentration of naturally occurring plants within the forest

19. The rainforest provides heat, shelter, clothing and transportation Burning Stretching

20. Characteristics of the in-field garden • Multiple uses and functions • Trees bear fruits and seeds that serve as foods for subsistence and cash crops (e.g. coconuts) • Excess wood is used for construction material and fires • Increased diversity ensures a balanced diet rich in nutrients • Variability in harvest and flowering times • Ensures income sources throughout the year especially if there is crop failure

21. Capirona (Calycophyllum spruceanum) Grows over 100 ft. tall, high enough to emerge above the main canopy

22. Fire Wood • Capirona is a favored wood because it is very dense and burns hot and long • Stands out in the canopy because of its smooth bark and lack of epiphytes Calycophyllumspruceanum

23. Traditional kitchen Life in a typical Amazon home is very simple. Food is cooked on an open fire, in a pot big enough to provide for the large family.

24. Capirona bark • Capirona's rough outer bark peels readily. • A smooth-surfaced inner bark remains. • Epiphytes are prevented from colonizing - never have epiphytes on their branches. • This remarkable adaptation saves the tree from the burden of extra weight and shade caused by epiphytes.

25. Kapok • The Kapok (Ceiba petandra) is a rainforest giant • It may grow to 150 feet high • The abundance of epiphytes on upper branches and the long roots reaching down from the tree's crown show how other plants are dependent on these large trees • Kapok is one of the few rainforest trees that are wind-pollinated • It is widely used to make plywood and trees this large are becoming rare

26. Effects of a tree on surrounding agroceosystem

27. Palm fiber Much of the fiber used in local handicrafts comes from the Chambira Palm (Astrocaryumchambira). Leaf buds are shredded, dried as shown, and then twisted into strings.

28. Fig Bark Cloth Skirt (Ficus yaponensis) • Worn today for traditional performances • Bark is partially stripped from portion of the trunk • Fiber is moistened , laid flat, pounded with a heavy piece of wood • End result is smooth • supple materials used for headgear, painting canvas, small bags and clothing

29. Fig Bark used for Traditional Dress

30. Brazil nut tree • Brazil nuts come from a large rainforest tree (Bertholletia excelsa) • The nuts, locally called "Castana", are cultivated throughout lowland Amazonia • Important source of income for local people • The nuts grow inside a large grapefruit-sized pod, arranged like segments of an orange, about 12 to a pod • The flowers are pollinated by bats • Rainforest rodents such as agoutis facilitate the tree's reproduction by burying the seeds and then forgetting where they were buried

31. Brazil nuts Important food and cash crop

32. Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)

33. Breadfruit is Not Native • Introduced from Tahiti from Captain Bligh • Fruits look fuzzy but actually covered with tiny spines • Not a favorite, but a faithful staple used when crops fail

34. Calabash • Large green fruit is inedible but very useful • Ranges in size from a plum to a watermelon • Fruit is harvested, halved, and dried out to make an impermeable container • Good for cups and bowls • Carvers like to make intricate designs on the outside (Crescentia cujete)

35. Chili Pepper (Capsicum sp.)

36. Uses of Chilis • Highly valued for flavor • Important to the in-field garden • Usually planted close to the kitchen for ready availability • Added to sauces and stews • Numerous medicinal uses

37. Cocoa Pod • Provides the raw material for chocolate! • Harvested from the seeds which are ground down to make cocoa • Forms the basis for cocoa butter used in confectionery • Highly valued cash crop • Good understory tree for sustainable agroforestry (Theobroma cacao)

38. Lemongrass • (Cymbopogon citratus) used for cooking • Tea made from the leaves aids in digestion • Widely grown in villages and around tourist lodges

39. Mango • (Mangifera indica) is not native to the Amazon • Asian origin • Widely cultivated • When ripe, the yellow fruit is eaten on its own or • used to flavor drinks, or desserts such as ice-cream

40. Papaya • Papaya, or Pawpaw (Carica papaya) grows from a small but fast growing tree • Eaten for breakfast • An extract of papaya (papain) is used as a meat tenderizer

41. Ice Cream Bean (Inga edulis)

42. Inga edulis • Although called a bean because it belongs to the bean family, the fruit grows long and dangling from a tree • The seeds commonly germinate while the fruit is still attached to the tree

43. Sugar Cane Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum) is an important staple, and cash crop. For many, it is the only source of sweetner and it is sold off at market for export or to local sugar factories. It is also used to make the local liquor, aguardiente.

44. Cane Juice Pressers Sugar cane is grown primarily for the juice which is extracted and then fermented to make "aguardiente," a type of rum. The extraction methods vary.

45. Rainforest Gardening Practices • Amazon farmers cultivate the land quite differently than farmers in industrialized countries • There is no mechanization, and few chemicals are used • Farming practices adapt to nature rather than attempt to control it • Garden patchs are left fallow, to be recolonized by the forest • Fallow plots yield longer term crops (e.g. fruits and nuts) for years to come • The land will take about 150-200 years to become indistinguishable from surrounding forest

46. Ecological Impact of Swidden • The traditional forest-fallow farming system is less destructive because of the method, scale and clearing • Shifting will actively aid in the re-establishment of the forest • Burning is integral, essential, and generally beneficial • A few hectares of clearing represent a temporary intervention in the forest ecosystem, farmers are knowledgeable managers of the landscape • All of this is contingent on the forest-fallow system and if fallow periods are long enough for regeneration

47. Characteristics of Monoculture • Less genetic diversity than polyculture • Increases soil depletion/erosion • Highly mechanized and therefore costly • Many chemical applications needed (e.g., pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers) • Lacks sustainability • Increases productivity (for the short term)

48. Monoculture Predominantly associated with cash crops Rubberplantation New banana plantings

49. Citrus plantation

50. Ecological Controversies • Shifting cultivators are often held responsible for the deforestation of the humid tropics • Misdirected due to the fact that shifting cultivation is a complex agricultural system that is well-adapted, under certain conditions, to the environmental limitations of the tropics • It requires in-depth knowledge of the tropical environment and a high degree of managerial skills to succeed