When was Italy last under one unified government?

2. Garibaldi turns S. Italy & Sicily over to Sardinia Uneven distr. of wealth b/w N & S Italy Different subcultures in N. & S. Italy Sard. takes Papal States (exc. Rome) fr. France Giuseppe Garibaldi, a fiery rev. leader, furious about Fr. deserting the Ital. cause & then getting Nice, his birthplace, plans to take Nice backSard. diverts him to S. Italy & Sicily, which he takes from the Bourbons. Sardinia, needing allies vs. Austria, helps France & Britain vs. Russia in Crimean War  Fr. helps Sardinia vs Aust. in War of 1859, but drops out after two costly victories  Sardinia gets most of N. Italy, while France gets Nice & Savoy for its help Efforts to build Italy w/nat’l army, nat’l RR, & public education largely fail because: Resistance from local groups (e.g., Mafia) Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Investments pay off Loans from Britain Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Formation of Kgd. Of Italy (1861) Need 2 more areas to complete unification FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) When was Italy last under one unified government? Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Venice which falls to Italy after Austro Prussian War (1866) Rome which falls to Italy after Franco-Prussian War (1871) Italy’s poor performance in World War I (FC.127) Italy destabilized & open to takeover by Mussolini & the Fascists (FC.133)

3. Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries

4. Italy (c.800-1000)

5. Italy & Germany under the Hohenstauffen dynasty (1125-1254)

8. Satirical view of Pope Pius IX as being two-faced for betraying the Italian nationalists in 1848 FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108)

9. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification What state was seen as the natural leader for Italian unification? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108)

10. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Leader of Sardinia & his qualities?

11. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loans Builds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

13. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loans Builds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. 1st step to build up? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

14. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loans Builds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Do what with $? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

15. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loans Builds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Why? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

16. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Then do what? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

17. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Repaysloans then do what? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

18. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Sardinia, needing allies vs. Austria, helps France & Britain vs. Russia in Crimean War  Fr. helps Sardinia vs Aust. in War of 1859, but drops out after two costly victories  Sardinia gets most of N. Italy, while France gets Nice & Savoy for its help What does Cavour need next? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

19. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Sardinia, needing allies vs. Austria, helps France & Britain vs. Russia in Crimean War  Fr. helps Sardinia vs Aust. in War of 1859, but drops out after two costly victories  Sardinia gets most of N. Italy, while France gets Nice & Savoy for its help How does he get allies? FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

20. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Sardinia, needing allies vs. Austria, helps France & Britain vs. Russia in Crimean War  Fr. helps Sardinia vs Aust. in War of 1859, but drops out after two costly victories  Sardinia gets most of N. Italy, while France gets Nice & Savoy for its help INVADES RUSSIA! (Of course) FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification

21. A Kgd. of Sardinia (aka: Piedmont) seen as the natural leader for Italian unification Loans from Britain Investments pay off Repays loansBuilds a good credit rating Builds strong econ. (RR’s, banks, ind’s, etc. Sardinia, needing allies vs. Austria, helps France & Britain vs. Russia in Crimean War  Fr. helps Sardinia vs Aust. in War of 1859, but drops out after two costly victories  Sardinia gets most of N. Italy, while France gets Nice & Savoy for its help FC. 120 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY & ITS EFFECTS (1848-1914) Rev’s of 1848 fail when Pope & Duke of Tuscany desert the cause of Italian unification & indep. (FC.108) Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification Camillo Cavour, Sardinia’s prime minister, skillfully orchestrates Italy’s unification ***

22. The Crimean War (1853-56)

23. One long-term cause of the Crimean War was Russia’s desire to expand toward the Mediterranean and Middle East, leading to its efforts to destabilize an already weak Turkey, referred to then as the Sick Man of Europe. Tsar Nicholas I’s aggressive moves soon involved France and Britain who also feared Russian aggression in the region.

24. Another trigger was a dispute between Catholics, backed by Napoleon III, and Orthodox Christians,backed by the tsar, over who was protector of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land, who controlled the keys to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, and who could place a star over the exact site of Christ’s manger (below). This dispute even turned to violence as Catholic and Orthodox monks rioted and were killing each other with candlesticks and crucifixes.

25. While the French and British had little love for the Ottomans, they feared the looming shadow of the Russian bear even more, portrayed below right as an autocratic master of a slave empire. Much of this was the result of the forged Testament of Peter the Great, in which Peter supposedly outlined a master plan for conquering all Europe.

26. Thanks to much more widespread influence of newspapers, British and French cartoonists had a field day stirring up public hysteria against Russia. In this sense, along with others, the Crimean War was the first modern war where public opinion, influenced by the press, helped drive government policies.

27. Although probably fabricated by Napoleon as a piece of anti-Russian propaganda for the narrow purpose of justifying his invasion of Russia in 1812, paranoia about Russian aggression stirred up by the forged Testament of Peter the Great would continue throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.

28. One of the events finally pulling France and Britain into war was the destruction of a Turkish naval squadron by the Russians at Sinope.

29. While the British secretary of state for war was reading instructions for the generals to cabinet members, nearly all of them fell asleep. Surprisingly, the British didn’t adopt this as a strategy against the Russians.

30. Nicholas expected Austria to side with him, especially after he had sent 100,000 troops to help suppress its revolutions in 1848. Instead Austria backed the allies, ordering Russia out of Moldavia and Walachia along the Danube River, and then occupying them with its own troops. However, that was all Austria did to help its allies, making them a bit mad. By the same token, relations between Austria and Russia progressively soured until finally driving them to war against one another in 1914.

31. Meanwhile Sardinia seized the opportunity of allying with Britain and France, and actually sending 10,000 troops to help them, hoping this would gain it diplomatic leverage against Austria later on.

32. Fighting centered on the siege of Sebastopol in the Crimea (thus the name of the war). This was because it was harder for Russia, with no railroads, to supply Sebastopol by land than it was for Britain and France to do it by sea, especially with the new and faster steamships using the more efficient screw propeller instead of the side-wheeler. On the Russian side, only an estimated one in ten Russians even made it to the front, some being diverted by a peasant revolt, some dropping out from disease or exhaustion, and others just deserting.

33. A number of military innovations distinguished the Crimean War, among which were ironclad ships (which had to be towed), and exploding artillery shells. Below: Balaklava Harbor during the Crimean War, crowded with British & French ships.

34. The telegraph also made its debut in warfare at this time. Besides rapidly transmitting and coordinating military information and orders, it provided the home front with daily information on the progress, or lack of it, in the war. This, along with the faster printing press and railroads, which made national newspapers possible, had an impact that can hardly be over-estimated in the age of democratic politics. After all, dailyreports from the front give the impression of much slower progress than do monthly ones. Therefore, governments have felt pressured either to push for quick victories, often with disastrous military results, or to censor and/or distort information to keep the public calm. Adding to that impact were political cartoons with images that added little or nothing in the way of facts but could sway opinions of less literate readers on an emotional level.

35. This was also the first major war to be recorded in part by the camera, although the long exposure times precluded taking any action shots. Thus the grim pictures of the aftermath of battles with which Matthew Brady would shock the American public about the brutality of the Civil War were missing in the Crimean war. Below: the “Valley of the Shadow of Death” littered with cannonballs.

38. Left: Comparative casualties in the Crimean War. Below: “Roll Call” by Lady Butler. Much of the tragedy of the Crimean War came from the abysmal supply system for the British and French soldiers who were given little or no clothing to withstand the Crimean winter. Britain Turkey France Russia

39. The Minie rifle or rifled musket. Probably the single most significant military development was the Muzzle-loading Minie rifle, developed in France in 1849. The inside of the gun had a spiral groove, known as rifling. It fired a conical shaped soft lead bullet (below) that was hollow in back, had three grooves around it to catch the rifling, and was slightly smaller than the inside of the barrel to make it easy to load. When it was fired, the heat would expand the bullet, trapping the explosive gases to give it more velocity. In addition the bullet would get caught in the grooves of the spiral rifling, which would put a spin on it, firing it much straighter and farther than before, an estimated 600 meters.

40. Such a weapon made the old tactic of attacking in massed formations obsolete, since defenders would be shredding their ranks at six times the range of smoothbore muskets. However, generals, being trained in Napoleonic tactics and unable to come up with anything new, continued using the old tactics even through the First World War—with disastrous results. Wounds inflicted by these high velocity lead bullets would shatter any bone and cartilage, often making it impossible to mend shattered limbs and forcing surgeons to resort to amputation on unprecedented levels.

41. Below: The siege of Sevastopol, one of the central actions of the Crimean War

42. The Charge of the Light Brigade is probably the best-known action of the Crimean War, although it was only a small part of the Battle of Balaklava. General Lord Lucan, viewing the battle from the heights, couldn't see how the plain below wasn't so flat. Thinking the Light Brigade’s commander could see the Russians he wanted attacked, he ordered a frontal assault.

43. A confused aide gave unclear orders to charge a retreating Russian battery, but the only Russian artillery the Light Brigade’s commanding officer, the Earl of Cardigan, could see was in a position that was virtually suicidal to attack. Cardigan ordered the attack anyway, possibly to embarrass his commanding officer (and brother-in-law), Lord Lucan, whom he hated and who had originally given the order. The messenger saw his mistake, but was killed before he could redirect the charge. Making matters worse, the bugler was killed so they couldn’t call off the charge once it had started.

44. Somehow 230 of the original 673 men in the Light Brigade made it through the Russian lines. Of those, only 195 survived this tragic blunder unwounded. Cardigan tried to blame Lord Lucan, but the commanding general was not impressed since it was Cardigan who actually carried out such a stupid charge.

45. An idealized view of the Light Brigade fighting Russian cavalry and a more realistic portrayal of the survivors by the artist, Lady Butler.

46. Further glorifying this blunder was Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem, “The Charge of the Light Brigade” Flash'd all their sabres bare, Flash'd as they turn'd in air, Sabring the gunners there, Charging an army, while All the world wonder'd: Plunged in the battery-smoke Right thro' the line they broke; Cossack and Russian Reel'd from the sabre stroke Shatter'd and sunder'd. Then they rode back, but not Not the six hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon behind them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, While horse and hero fell, They that had fought so well Came thro' the jaws of Death Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them, Left of six hundred. When can their glory fade? O the wild charge they made! All the world wondered. Honor the charge they made, Honor the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred. Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! "Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade!" Was there a man dismay'd? Not tho' the soldier knew Someone had blunder'd: Theirs not to make reply, Theirs not to reason why, Theirs but to do and die: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley'd and thunder'd; Storm'd at with shot and shell, Boldly they rode and well, Into the jaws of Death, Into the mouth of Hell Rode the six hundred. The bugle call of Trumpeter Landfrey, one of the surviving buglers of the Charge of the Light Brigade, recorded in 1890.

47. The Lady with a Lamp

48. Much of the tragedy of the Crimean War came from the abysmal supply system for the British and French soldiers who were given little or no clothing to withstand the Crimean winter. Another scandal of the war concerned the squalid conditions of the field hospitals and the high mortality rate of the wounded.

49. Enter one of the real heroes (or heroines) of the war, Florence Nightingale. In the midst of the scandal over medical care and after incredible persistence in badgering the authorities, she got permission to go to the front. She and the 38 other nurses she brought with her to the Crimea cleaned up the British field hospitals and reduced the death rate from 60% to 1%. Besides revolutionizing medical care for the wounded, she made nursing the first respectable profession open to women.

50. Pictures of Florence Nightingale in 1851 and 1856 before and after going to Crimea show the physical and emotional toll the war took on her. Some think she was the victim of posttraumatic stress syndrome, a condition usually associated with combat fatigue.