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Dive into the world of educational research, exploring various methodologies, from basic to applied research, quantitative and qualitative approaches, and distinct types such as experimental, correlational, causal-comparative, and survey research. Unlock insights into the scientific method, types of knowledge, and ways of conducting research in the field of education.
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Deskripsi • Penelitian terwujud dalam berbagai bentuk. • Pada bagian awal ini, Anda diperkenalkan pada subjek penelitian pendidikan dan dijelaskan tentang mengapa pengetahuan beragam tipe penelitian sangat bernilai bagi para pendidik. • Penelitian selain merupakan cara untuk memperoleh pengetahuan, Anda juga dapat mengembangkan sejumlah cara dan membandingkan kekuatan-kekuatan (kelebihan) dan kelemahan (kekurangan) masing-masing ragam bentuk penelitian. • Pada bagian ini diberikan gambaran awal tentang sejumlah metodologi penelitian pendidikan untuk menyusun serangkaian tahap lanjutan untuk diskusi pada bab-bab berikutnya. • Akhirnya, kita akan mendiskusikan sejumlah kritik dari proses penelitian.
Ways of Knowing • SENSORY EXPERIENCE • AGREEMENT WITH OTHERS • EXPERT OPINION • LOGIC • THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The general order of the scientific method, then, is as follows: • Identifying a problem or question • Clarifying the problem • Determining the information needed and how to obtain it • Organizing the information • Interpreting the results
Types of Research • The term research can mean any sort of “careful,systematic, patient study and investigation in somefield of knowledge.” • Basic research is concerned withclarifying underlying processes, with the hypothesisusually expressed as a theory. Researchers engaged inbasic research studies are not particularly interestedin examining the effectiveness of specific educationalpractices. An example of basic research might be anattempt to refine one or more stages of Erickson’s psychologicaltheory of development.
Applied research,on the other hand, is interested in examining the effectivenessof particular educational practices. Researchersengaged in applied research studies may or may notwant to investigate the degree to which certain theoriesare useful in practical settings. An example might be anattempt by a researcher to find out whether a particulartheory of how children learn to read can be applied tofirst graders who are non-readers. Many studies combinethe two types of research. An example would bea study that examines the effects of particular teacherbehaviors on students while also testing a theory of personality
QUANTITATIVE AND • QUALITATIVE RESEARCH • Another distinction involves the difference betweenquantitative and qualitative research . • In the simplest sense,quantitative data deal primarily with numbers, whereasqualitative data primarily involve words. • But this is toosimple and too brief. Quantitative and qualitative methodsdiffer in their assumptions about the purpose of researchitself, methods utilized by researchers, kinds ofstudies undertaken, the role of the researcher, and thedegree to which generalization is possible.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH • Experimental research is the most conclusive of scientific methods. • Because the researcher actually establishesdifferent treatments and then studies their effects,results from this type of research are likely to lead to the most clear-cut interpretations.
Another form of experimental research, single-subjectresearch , involves the intensive study of a single individual(or sometimes a single group) over time.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH • Another type of research is done to determine relationshipsamong two or more variables and to explore theirimplications for cause and effect; this is called correlationalresearch . This type of research can help us make more intelligent predictions. • For instance, could a math teacher predict whichsorts of individuals are likely to have trouble learningthe subject matter of algebra? If we could make fairlyaccurate predictions in this regard, then perhaps wecould suggest some corrective measures for teachers touse to help such individuals so that large numbers of “algebra-haters” are not produced.
CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH • Another type of research is intended to determine thecause for or the consequences of differences betweengroups of people; this is called causal-comparativeresearch . • Suppose a teacher wants to determine whetherstudents from single-parent families do more poorly inher course than students from two-parent families. To investigatethis question experimentally, the teacher wouldsystematically select two groups of students and then assigneach to a single- or two-parent family—which isclearly impossible (not to mention unethical!).
SURVEY RESEARCH • Another type of research obtains data to determinespecificcharacteristics of a group. • Take the case of a high school principalwho wants to find out how his faculty feels abouthis administrative policies. What do they like about hispolicies? What do they dislike? Why? Which policiesdo they like the best or least?
ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH • In all the examples presented so far, the questions beingasked involve how well, how much, or how efficientlyknowledge, attitudes, or opinions and the like exist orare being developed. Sometimes, however, researchersmay wish to obtain a more complete picture of theeducational process than answers to the above questionsprovide. When they do, some form of qualitativeresearch is called for. Qualitative research differs fromthe previous (quantitative) methodologies in both itsmethods and its underlying philosophy.
To gain some insight into such concerns, an ethnographicstudy can be conducted. The emphasis in thistype of research is on documenting or portraying theeveryday experiences of individuals by observing andinterviewing them and relevant others. • Lastly, grounded theory emphasizes continual interplaybetween raw data and the researcher’s interpretationsthat emerge from the data
HISTORICAL RESEARCH • You are probably already familiar with historicalresearch . In this type of research, some aspect of thepast is studied, either by perusing documents of the periodor by interviewing individuals who lived duringthe time. The researcher then attempts to reconstruct asaccurately as possible what happened during that timeand to explain why it did.
ACTION RESEARCH • Action research differs from all the preceding methodologiesin two fundamental ways. The fi rst is thatgeneralization to other persons, settings, or situations isof minimal importance. Instead of searching for powerfulgeneralizations, action researchers (often teachersor other education professionals, rather than professionalresearchers) focus on getting information thatwill enable them to change conditions in a particularsituation in which they are personally involved.
EVALUATION RESEARCH • There are many different kinds of evaluations dependingon the object being evaluated and the purpose of theevaluation. Evaluation research is usually described as eitherformative or summative . • Formative evaluations areintended to improve the object being evaluated; they helpto form or strengthen it by examining the delivery of theprogram or technology and the quality of its implementation. • In contrast, summative evaluations seek to examinethe effects or outcomes of an object by describing whathappens after the delivery of the program or technologyin order to assess whether the object caused the outcome.
ALL HAVE VALUE • It must be stressed that each of the research methodologiesdescribed so briefly above has value for us in education. • Each constitutes a different way of inquiring intothe realities that exist within our classrooms and schoolsand into the minds and emotions of teachers, counselors,administrators, parents, and students. Each represents adifferent tool for trying to understand what goes on, andwhat works, in schools. • It is inappropriate to considerany one or two of these approaches as superior to any ofthe others. • The effectiveness of a particular methodologydepends in large part on the nature of the researchquestion one wants to ask and the specific context withinwhich the particular investigation is to take place. • Weneed to gain insights into what goes on in education fromas many perspectives as possible, and hence we need toconstrue research in broad rather than narrow terms.
General Research Types • DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES • Descriptive studies describe a given state of affairs asfully and carefully as possible. One of the best examplesof descriptive research is found in botany and zoology,where each variety of plant and animal species is meticulouslydescribed and information is organized into useful taxonomic categories. In educational research, the most common descriptivemethodology is the survey, as when researchers summarizethe characteristics (abilities, preferences, behaviors,and so on) of individuals or groups or (sometimes)physical environments (such as schools). Qualitative approaches,such as ethnographic and historical methodologiesare also primarily descriptive in nature. Examplesof descriptive studies in education include identifying theachievements of various groups of students; describingthe behaviors of teachers, administrators, or counselors;describing the attitudes of parents; and describing thephysical capabilitiesof schools. The description of phenomenais the starting point for all research endeavors.
ASSOCIATIONAL RESEARCH • Educational researchers also want to do more than simplydescribe situations or events. They want to knowhow (or if), for example, differences in achievementare related to such things as teacher behavior, studentdiet, student interests, or parental attitudes. By investigatingsuch possible relationships, researchers are ableto understand phenomena more completely. • Correlational and causalcomparative methodologies are the principal examples of associational research.
INTERVENTION STUDIES • In intervention studies , a particular method or treatmentis expected to influence one or more outcomes.Such studies enable researchers to assess, for example,the effectiveness of various teaching methods, curriculummodels, classroom arrangements, and other effortsto influence the characteristics of individuals or groups. • Intervention studies can also contribute to generalknowledge by confirming (or failing to confirm) theoreticalpredictions (for instance, that abstract conceptscan be taught to young children). The primary methodologyused in intervention research is the experiment.
