Continued on next slide.

2. Continued on next slide.

3. Answers: 1. physical traits such as hair and eye color  2. Other factors may include the effects of school and culture, or other aspects of a person’s environment.  3. Wealthy families have advantages others do not. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answers.

4. Reader’s Guide Main Idea • Psychology involves sets of questions, theories, methods, and possible answers that have been passed on and changed from generation to generation.  Objectives • Explain important trends in the history of psychology.  • Identify various approaches to the study of psychology. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2 begins on page 14 of your textbook.

5. Reader’s Guide (cont.) Vocabulary • structuralist  • introspection  • functionalist  • psychoanalyst  • behaviorist  • humanist  • cognitivist  • psychobiologist Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring Psychology. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2 begins on page 14 of your textbook.

6. Introduction • In the 1800s Marmaduke B. Sampson wrote an account to explain why crime occurs. According to Sampson, the behavior of S.S. was the direct result of the shape of his head.  • Phrenology–the practice of examining bumps on a person’s skull to determine that person’s intellect and character traits–became an important practice in the United States in the mid-1800s. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

7. Introduction (cont.) • Although this pseudoscience may appear ridiculous to us, modern scientists credit phrenology for encouraging study into the role of the brain in human behavior.  • Phrenology may have inspired scientists to consider the brain, instead of the heart, as responsible for human behavior. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

8. The Origins of Psychology • Psychology has come a long way since the days of studying bumps on skulls.  • In the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., the Greeks began to study human behavior and decided that people’s lives were dominated not so much by the gods as by their own minds: people were rational.  • These early philosophers attempted to interpret the world they observed around them in terms of human perceptions, and these qualities influenced people’s experience of them. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

9. The Origins of Psychology (cont.) • Although the Greek philosophers did not rely on systematic study, they did set the stage for the development of the sciences, including psychology, through their reliance on observation as a means of knowing their world.  • As one psychologist has expressed it, “Modern science began to emerge by combining philosophers’ reflections, logic, and mathematics with the observations and inventiveness of practical people” (Hilgard, 1987). Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

10. Historical Approaches • The history of psychology is a history of alternative perspectives.  • As the field of psychology evolved, various schools of thought arose to compete and offer new approaches to the science of behavior. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

11. Structuralism • In 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) started his Laboratory of Psychology.  • Because of his efforts to pursue the study of human behavior in a systematic and scientific manner, Wundt is generally acknowledged as establishing modern psychology as a separate, formal field of study.  • Although he was trained in physiology–the study of how the body works–Wundt’s real interest was in the human mind. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

12. Structuralism (cont.) • Wundt was a structuralist, which means that he was interested in the basic elements of human experience.  • He developed a method of self-observation called introspection to collect information about the mind. structuralist a psychologist who studied the basic elements that make up conscious mental experiences introspection a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

13. Functionalism • William James (1842–1910) focused on the functions or purposes of the conscious mind and the goals or functions or purposes of behaviors.  • Functionalists study how mental processes help animals and people adapt to their environment. functionalist a psychologist who studies the function (rather than the structure) of consciousness Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

14. Inheritable Traits • Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), a nineteenth-century English scientist and mathematician, wanted to understand how heredity influences a person’s abilities, character, and behavior.  • After a study, he concluded that genius or eminence is a hereditary trait.  • Later, scientists all over the world recognized the flaws in Galton’s theory.  • A person’s heredity and that person’s environment interact to produce intelligence. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

15. Gestalt Psychology • A group of German psychologists disagreed with the principles of structuralism and behaviorism.  • They argued that perception is more than the sum of its parts–it involves a “whole pattern” or, in German, a Gestalt.  • Gestalt psychologists studied how sensations are assembled into perceptual experiences.  • This approach became the forerunner for cognitive approaches to the study of psychology. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

16. Contemporary Approaches • Many ideas taken from the historical approaches to psychology are reflected in contemporary approaches to the study of psychology.  • The most important approaches to the study of psychology today are the psychoanalytic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, biological, and sociocultural approaches. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

17. Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

18. Psychoanalytic Psychology • While the first psychologists were interested in understanding the conscious mind, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was more interested in the unconscious mind.  • Freud used a new method for indirectly studying unconscious processes.  • In this technique, known as free association, a patient said everything that came to mind–no matter how absurd or irrelevant it seemed–without attempting to produce logical or meaningful statements. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

19. Psychoanalytic Psychology (cont.) • Freud’s role, that of psychoanalyst, was to be objective; he merely sat and listened and then interpreted the associations.  • In many areas of psychology today, Freud’s view of unconscious motivation remains a powerful and controversial influence. psychoanalyst a psychologist who studies how unconscious motives and conflicts determine human behavior Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

20. Behavioral Psychology • The pioneering work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) charted another new course for psychological investigation.  • Psychologists who stressed investigating observable behavior became known as behaviorists. behaviorist a psychologist who analyzes how organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their response to events in the environment Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

21. Humanistic Psychology • Humanistic psychology developed as a reaction to behavioral psychology.  • In the 1960s, humanists described human nature as evolving and self-directed.  • Humanistic psychology does not view humans as being controlled by events in the environment or by unconscious forces. humanist a psychologist who believes that each person has freedom in directing his or her future and achieving personal growth Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

22. Cognitive Psychology • Cognitivists focus on how we process, store, and use information and how this information influences our thinking, language, problem solving, and creativity.  • They believe that behavior is more than a simple response to a stimulus; it is influenced by a variety of mental processes. cognitivist a psychologist who studies how we process, store, retrieve, and use information and how cognitive processes influence our behavior Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

23. Biological Psychology • This viewpoint emphasizes the impact of biology on our behavior.  • Psychobiologists study how the brain, the nervous system, and hormones and genetics influence our behavior.  • Recently, psychobiologists have discovered a link between chemicals in the brain and human behavior. psychobiologist a psychologist who studies how physical and chemical changes in our bodies influence our behavior Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

24. Sociocultural Psychology • The newest approach to psychology involves studying the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on behavior and social functioning.  • For example, a sociocultural psychologist considers how our knowledge and ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving are dependent on the culture to which we belong. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

25. Sociocultural Psychology (cont.) • Sociocultural psychologists also study the impact and integration of the millions of immigrants who come to the United States each year.  • The sociocultural approach is also concerned with issues such as gender and socioeconomic status and is based on the idea that these factors impact human behavior and mental processes. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.

26. Section Assessment Review the Vocabulary Using your own words, describe the structuralist, functionalist, behaviorist, and humanist approaches to the study of psychology. • Structuralism: study of the basic elements of mental experiences. • Functionalism: study of the function of consciousness. • Behaviorism: study of how organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their response to events in the environment. • Humanism: study believing that human nature is evolving and self-directed. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

27. Section Assessment (cont.) Visualize the Main IdeaUse a graphic organizer similar to the one shown on page 22 of your textbook to list the different historical approaches to the study of psychology. The graphic organizers should include structuralism, functionalism, inheritable traits, and Gestalt. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

28. Section Assessment (cont.) Recall Information Identify some issues that sociocultural psychologists might research. Some possible issues sociocultural psychologists might research include the long-term effects of war and the effects of poverty on the ability to learn. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

29. Section Assessment (cont.) Think Critically With which approach to psychology do you most agree? Why? While opinions will vary, you must be able to defend your answer. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer.

30. Case Studies 2 The Four Humors According to Galen’s hypothesis, how are a person’s physical and mental states related? Galen hypothesized that the four humors gave off vapors that rose to the brain. A mentally healthy individual exhibited a balance in the humors. An unhealthy personality had an imbalance in the humors. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

31. Case Studies 3 The Four Humors How did Galen treat psychological disorders? Galen gave people poisonous herbs to induce vomiting. This was thought to bring the humors back into balance. Galen also recognized the value of a balanced diet in maintaining mental health. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

32. Case Studies 4 The Four Humors Critical Thinking  How can Galen’s original theory be used today as a prescription for a healthy personality? Galen stressed maintaining balance in the four humors. Although his theory of humors was wrong, his concept of maintaining balance can be applied to personality and lifestyle. Extremes in personality, such as extreme anger or depression, can result in a variety of physical and psychological ailments. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

33. Case Studies 5 The Four Humors Discuss the following: How are mental and physical health related? Continued on next slide. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

34. Case Studies 6 The Four Humors Galen was both a physician and a philosopher. As a young man he studied the healing arts at Asclepius’s sanctuary. Asclepius was the Roman god of healing. After studying there, Galen traveled widely and continued his learning. He was eventually appointed to the prestigious position of physician to the gladiators. For four years, he honed his skills in treating traumas and sports injuries. Continued on next slide. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

35. Case Studies 7 The Four Humors • Galen was a prolific medical and philosophical writer.  • Throughout his writings, he freely combined medicine and philosophy.  • At the time, philosophy enjoyed a place of prominence.  • Galen argued that medicine should be given the same status as philosophy.  • His influence on Western medical thought and practice continued throughout the Middle Ages. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

36. Case Studies 8 The Four Humors • Like all physicians of his day, Galen used a variety of herbs to treat medical conditions.  • Many in the medical community today are reexamining the usefulness of herbal remedies to treat a variety of ailments. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. This feature is found on page 23 of your textbook.

37. Time Reports 1 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystIntroduction Use the Reader’s Dictionary that appears on the next slide to help explain unfamiliar terms as you read the article on pages 32–33 of your textbook. Be prepared to answer the questions that follow. Continued on next slide. This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

38. Time Reports 2 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystReader’s Dictionary prolific: productive cognitive theory: explores the difference between inborn knowledge and what is learned from the environment genetic epistemology: the study of the limits of inborn abilities and traits anthropology: the study of human and animal cultures and societies pedagogical theory: explores how learning occurs psyche: the mind neurotic: having emotional instabilities Oedipus complex: attraction to the parent of the opposite gender neurasthenics: mental disorders characterized by fatigue, listlessness, feelings of inadequacy, and other symptoms of emotional instability introspection: an examination of one’s own thoughts and feelings Continued on next slide. This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

39. Time Reports 3 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystAnalyzing the Articles What was Piaget’s contribution to psychology? He promoted the idea that children build their knowledge; they are not empty vessels. His exploration of how children gain knowledge helped clarify inborn knowledge and knowledge which was gained through learning. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

40. Time Reports 4 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystAnalyzing the Articles CRITICAL THINKING How might the ways we think about children and ourselves be different today if Piaget and Freud had not proposed their theories? If Piaget had not proposed his theories, we would see children’s thought processes as illogical. His ideas provided the foundation for today’s education-reform movements. If Freud had not proposed his theories, we would be less aware of unconscious desires and struggles that exist from infancy. Also, Freud’s theories m many others to research psychological concepts. Many of these psychologists have proposed theories of their own that contribute to our understanding of human behavior. Continued on next slide. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the answer. This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

41. Time Reports 5 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystDiscussion How does Einstein’s comment “so simple that only a genius could have thought of it” apply to children’s thinking? Continued on next slide. This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

42. Time Reports 6 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystDiscussion What technique did both Piaget and Freud employ? Continued on next slide. This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

43. Time Reports 7 Jean Piaget–Child PsychologistSigmund Freud–PsychoanalystDiscussion What part of Freud’s theories is most difficult for you to accept? Why? This feature is found on pages 32–33 of your textbook.

44. Cultural Connections 2.1 Cuban psychologists live in a Soviet-styled environment. Although they are familiar with the work of Freud, Skinner, and Adler, they base much of their work on Lev Vygotsky. He is considered the father of Russian psychology. Vygotsky’s theories of sociocultural influence were used in developing the Soviet educational system. As a result of his influence, Cuban psychologists are more likely to counsel a would-be defector to suppress individual needs and yield to government demands for loyalty.

45. Psychology Update 2.1 Therapy Model In the era of managed care, even the amount of psychotherapy that may be required to treat various types of disorders has been studied. Kenneth Howard, Ph.D., and Mark Kopta, Ph.D., have developed a dosage model that estimates the number of psychotherapy sessions that a person needs to achieve normal psychological functioning. The model takes into account such things as the psychologist’s listening and empathizing skills. In general, they estimated that one year of psychotherapy sessions would be needed to have a 75 percent chance of regaining normal psychological functioning.

46. Applying Psychology 2.1 • More than 100 years ago, Hermann Ebbinghaus found that studying a list of new information once a day for several days led to better recall than studying the same list several times in one day.  • Select a subject for which you will have a test in one to two weeks.  • Try Ebbinghaus’s advice by studying that subject each day to review everything that is likely to be on the test.  • After the test report whether this form of studying improved your recall. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information.