Chapter 27

1. Chapter 27 The Deepening of the European Crisis: World War II

2. Prelude to War (1933-1939) • Still weary from WWI, France & Britain refused to accept the possibility of another war • USSR treated as an outcast by the West • United States had reverted back to its traditional isolationism • Austria and Hungary were to weak to oppose Germany in Central Europe • This power vacuum in central Europe encouraged a revived & militarized Germany to acquire living space that Hitler claimed the Aryans needed Role of Hitler • Hitler believed in Lebensraum (living space) – a nation’s power depended on the amount of land it occupied • Hitler believed that the Bolshevik Revolution had left Russia weak & now eastern Europe was open to occupation • Russia could be settled by German peasants & the Slavic population would serve as slave labor in building his Aryan state • Germany had to prepare for an inevitable war w/ USSR • One thing that Hitler was sure of: he was the only one that could lead this movement • Health concerns caused him to rush • impatience was his major undoing in the long-run

3. The Diplomatic Revolution (1933-1936) • Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on Jan 30, 1933 • Germany appeared weak as a result of the Treaty of Versailles • The country was not w/o advantages though • most populous country after the Soviet Union • possessed great industrial capacity • Hitler well aware Britain & France wanted to avoid another war • Hitler needed to avoid France’s interference in his plans • Initially appeared as a man of peace in public speeches • Only wanted to revise some unfair provisions that kept Germany from claiming its proper place in European society • March 1935 – publicly announced German rearmament to Europe • 3/9/35 – announced the formation of a new air force • 3/16/35 – military draft would increase army from 100,000 to 550,000 • Germany & Italy aided General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War in 1936 • Oct 1936 – the Rome-Berlin Axis was formed • Nov 1936 – Japan added, making Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis • The Anti-Comintern Pact – these nations would form a common front against communism

4. The Path to War in Europe (1937-1939) • Nov 5, 1937 – Hitler holds secret conference for military leaders to reveal his plans • goal is conquest of living space in the east • would likely lead to war w/ Britain & France • 1st had to deal w/ Austria & Czechoslovakia to protect Germany’s flanks • May 1936 – Neville Chamberlain visited Hitler • Chamberlain advocate of appeasement, believed survival of British Empire depended on German appeasement • Nov 1937 – Chamberlain told Hitler that he would not oppose changes in Central Europe if conducted peacefully • March 13, 1938 – formally annexed Austria after Austrian Nazis given control of the govt & Nazi troops invited to help keep order • Munich Conference (9/1938) – high point of appeasement by the West • Hitler given the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia w/ German pop.) • Hitler believed the West would not fight over Poland • Aug 23, 1939: Nazi-Soviet Non-aggression pact signed • Sept 1, 1939: Hitler invades Poland • Sept 17: Soviets occupy eastern Poland

6. The Path to War in Asia • Japan’s rise to world power was swift • defeated China in 1895 & Russia in 1905 • Took over Germany’s eastern & Pacific colonies in WWI • Population more than doubled 1870-1940 (30 mil. to 80 mil.) • needed to be able to feed people • Japan devastated economically & politically during depression • 1924 – Japan had experienced growth of political democracy • Depression stifled that growth • 1931 – Japan takes control of Manchuria • League of Nations condemned the action, Japan withdrew from League • 1935 – Japan begins constructing a modern naval fleet • By 1936 – the armed forces exercised influence over the govt. • Japan gained influence over Manchuria & China and began looking West • after Germany signed the Non-Aggression Pact w/ USSR, Japan had to change it’s plan; looked South & East • July 1941 – Japan’s move south into Indochina caused America to respond by placing an embargo on scrap iron & oil

7. The Course of World War II “When starting and waging a war it is not right that matters, but victory.” – Adolph Hitler (9 days before invading Poland) • Through the use of blitzkrieg (lightening war) Hitler shocked Europe with his army’s efficiency • 9/1/39 – Germany invades Poland • 9/3/39 – France & Great Britain declare war on Germany • 9/28/39 – Germany & Soviet Union officially divided Poland • Afraid of another war of attrition, GB & France refused to go on offensive • 1930-35, France had built a wall of fortifications along border w/ Germany (Maginot Line) • 4/9/40 – Hitler invades Denmark & Norway • 5/10/40 – attacked Netherlands, Belgium, & France • Main assault on Luxembourg unexpected • Bypassed the Maginot line, cut French & British forces in half • The entire British army & French troops escape at Dunkirk (330,000)

9. The Problem of Britain • 5/10/40 – Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as PM of Britain • Churchill was able to rally the British & would not accept Nazi aggression in the East • Hitler realized that he could only invade Britain by water if he controlled the air • Aug 1940 - Hitler launched Luftwaffe attacks on British Navy & Air Force bases • In September 1940, Hitler changed tactics & targeted British cities in retaliation for an attack on Berlin • Allowed Britain to rebuild its air force & repel further German attacks • By the end of Sept, Germany had lost the Battle of Britain & postponed invasion of Britain • Forced Hitler to switch to Mediterranean strategy • Capture Egypt & Suez Canal and close the sea to British ships • Would cut off British supply of oil • Initially allowed Italians to handle this, but eventually sent Nazi forces • Regardless, his primary concerns lay elsewhere

10. Invasion of the Soviet Union • July 1940 – Hitler tells his generals to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union • Hitler felt Britain was only in the war because it expected Soviet help • If Soviet Union crushed, Britain would press for peace • Hitler also convinced himself that the Jewish-Bolshevik leadership & pitiful army could be easily routed • Scheduled for spring 1941, Italian failure to capture Greece exposed Hitler’s flank to British air strikes • Had to gain the cooperation of Hungary, Bulgaria & Romania and capture Yugoslavia & Greece in April • Set his sights east & invaded the USSR on June 22, 1941 • Believed the Soviets could be defeated before the winter set in • By November, one German army swept through the Ukraine while another was besieging Leningrad, & 3rd army approached Moscow • An early winter & unexpected resistance halted the Nazi advance (1st time the Nazi forces had been stopped) • Dec 1941 – Stalin staged a counterattack • by that time, Hitler’s decisions (including declaration of war on U.S.) spelled his eventual defeat

11. The War in Asia • By summer 1941, most of SE Asia was under Japanese influence • Dec 7, 1941 – Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor • sank or damaged 21 U.S. ships • (U.S.S. Arizona was the 1st to sink) • destroyed 188 planes • killed more than 2400 people • injured 1100 people • this crippled the U.S. Pacific fleet • Dec 8 – U.S. declares war on Japan • Dec 11 – Germany declares war on the U.S. Importance of Pearl Harbor • allowed FDR to overcome the strong American isolationist sentiment • made the war truly a world-wide war • Japanese miscalculation of US strength • saw the U.S. as “soft,” too much materialistic indulgence • thought the attack on Pearl Harbor would destroy the Pacific fleet & persuade FDR to accept Japanese dominance in Pacific • only served to wake a “sleeping giant”

13. The Turning Point of the War • Entry of the US created an alliance that ultimately defeated the Axis Powers • The Allies (US, GB, & USSR) all had to overcome suspicions of each other • German declaration of war on US convinced FDR that Germany should be first priority, US increased aid (vehicles & weapons) to allies • 1943 – Allies agree to principle of unconditional surrender of Axis powers • early 1942, looked as though Germany would prevail in Europe • German Afrika Korps (led by Gen. Erwin Rommel) broke through British defenses in Egypt advanced on Alexandria • Summer 1942 - British forces stopped Rommel at El Alamein • Nov 1942 – British & US forces invade French N. Africa forcing German & Italian occupiers to surrender by May 1943 • On Eastern front, Stalingrad proved to be the turning point in the war • Nov 1942 – Feb 1943: German forces stopped, encircled & forced to surrender • Entire German 6th Army (300,000) lost, Germany back to starting point of June 1942, & Hitler realized Germany could not win in USSR

14. Battle of Midway (June 4, 1942) • US Naval forces stopped Japanese advance, saved Australia at Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) • Midway - turning point in Pacific Theater • Americans destroyed all four Japanese carriers attacking the island • established US military superiority in the Pacific The Last Years of the War • By 1943, the tide had turned against the Axis powers, but it would take a long time to achieve their unconditional surrender • May 1943 - Italian forces surrender at Tunisia, Allied forces move into Italy in Sept. • June 4 1943 – Allies take Rome D-Day (June 6, 1944) • In 1943, Churchill & FDR devised a plan to open a second front in the European theater • General Eisenhower assembled a force of 176,000 soldiers, 600 warships, and 10,000 aircraft in England for Operation Overlord • Within 3 months, Allies landed 2,000,000 men & 500,000 vehicles • Commanded by General Dwight Eisenhower, the Allies began the offensive that took them across France and Germany • By early August, U.S. Gen. George Patton led the 3rd Armored tank division across northern France to Germany

15. Last (& unsuccessful) attempt at a German offensive was at the Battle of the Bulge • Slowed but did not stop Allied advance • In January, 1945 Hitler had moved into an armored bunker in Berlin • by April 1945 – US, British, & Soviet forces all in Germany • Hitler blamed Jews for the war to the end of his days • April 12, 1945 – FDR dies, Harry S. Truman becomes President • April 28, 1945 – Mussolini shot & hung in Italy • April 30, 1945 – Hitler commits suicide • May 7, 1945 – Germany surrenders, ends WWII in Europe (V-E Day) • In the Pacific, the “island hopping” campaign successful but as US Navy nears Japan, Japanese resolve becomes more clear • May ’45 Iwo Jima, June ’45 Okinawa (major US victories) • code of Bushido (revived from feudal days) will not allow the Japanese to surrender, the country was willing to fight to the last man, woman & child • Truman sought a way to end the war quickly w/ as little loss of life on both sides as possible, turns to new invention the atomic bomb • August 6, 1945 - Hiroshima bombed (160,000 killed or inj.) • August 9, 1945 - Nagasaki bombed (120,000 killed or inj.) • August 14, 1945 – Japan surrenders, ends WWII (V-J Day)

16. The Holocaust • the Nazi Order’s attempt to exterminate the entire Jewish population of Europe was the most terrifying aspect of Hitler’s reign. • 1933-39 – Nazi policy to “encourage” Jewish emigration • Hitler also gave a warning about the possibility of another world war & the extermination of the Jewish people • September 1939 – Nazi policy changes to the Madagascar Plan • Jews would be mass shipped to the island of Madagascar • war contingencies made this plan impractical, more drastic measures were taken • Heinrich Himmler and the SS were given charge of the Final Solution to the Jewish problem • Reinhard Heydrich was given administrative responsibility for the Final Solution • Heydrich organized Einsatzgruppen to round up all Polish Jews & concentrate them in ghettos in certain Polish cities • June 1941 – Einsatzgruppen become mobile killing units • These SS death squads followed the army’s advance into Russia • went into villages, round up the Jews, execute them & bury them in mass graves

18. Jewish Death Camps • Even though an estimated 1 million were killed by the Einsatzgruppen, this approach to the Final Solution was inadequate • A more systematic method was developed • Jews in German controlled territory would be rounded up & sent to camps in Poland for extermination • 6 special camps designed specifically for extermination – Auschwitz, Cheimno, Treblinka, Sobibor, Maidanek, & Belzec • Heads of the camps were assisted by members of the T-4 program • T-4 had been charged w/ extermination of mentally & physically deformed earlier in Hitler’s reign • the camps would use Zyklon B (hydrogen cyanide) to kill the prisoners then the bodies would be placed in furnaces to be cremated. • some inmates subjected to cruel “medical” experiments • By spring 1942, the death camps were working • immediate priority given to Poland • by summer ’42, Jews were being shipped in from France, Belgium, & Netherlands; in ’43 – Italy, Greece, Denmark • The Final Solution had priority over anything on the Nazi railways • 30% of Jews that were sent to Auschwitz went to a labor camp, the rest were sent to the gas chambers • Records state that 5-6 million Jews were killed (3 million in camps) • Nearly 90% of Jewish pop of Poland, Germany & Baltic countries killed • Holocaust responsible for death of 2 out of 3 European Jews

19. The Home Front Great Britain • 55% of people in armed forces or civilian “war work” • By 1944, women held 50% of civil service positions • Food was rationed and people began growing their own food • Govt became more involved in regulating business to help increase manufacture of war materials Soviet Union • Only country to use women on the front line as soldiers • Stalin simply created a system of “supercentralization” • He controlled all political & military affairs • As Germans advanced, Soviet factories dismantled & shipped to the east. • Machines would be placed on bare ground & walls went up around them • WWII created a second industrial revolution • 55% of nat’l income went to war production, severe shortages of food and housing • German victory in West lost 47% of Soviet grain-producing land • Stalin knew that people would not fight for the Communist party but would fight to save “Mother Russia” , a patriotic propaganda campaign ensued

20. United States • Different situation at home because no threat of war on home territory • Women did get more involved in the workplace but 71% stayed at home • At high point of production, U.S. producing 6 ships a day & $6 billion in equipment per month • Over 1 million African-Americans moved into Northern cities • Caused racial tension, 1 million African Am. Soldiers enlisted only to be segregated in their own units • 100,000 Japanese Americans placed in internment camps in California (65% were born & raised in United States) Germany • Hitler was aware that the home front was very important • Blamed loss of WWI on collapse of home front morale • Refused to convert production from consumer goods to armaments • As the tide turned against the Nazi party, Hitler still refused drastic cuts in production of consumer goods until 1944 (too little, too late) • Women got slightly more involved in the labor force from 1939-44 • Number of women in labor force only increased 300,000

21. Costs of World War II • Economic – estimated $1 trillion ($1,000,000,000,000) • (U.S. spent $341 billion) • Lives – more than 60 million people died • 25 million from military • 30 million civilians • 10-12 million died in the Holocaust • (6 million Jews) • Balance of power • Britain, France, Germany, & Japan ceased to be world powers • This left only America & Soviet Union to compete for dominance • This competition for power would lead to the Cold War, which would last for almost 40 years

22. Aftermath: The Cold War Yalta Conference • By February 1945, the defeat of Germany was a forgone conclusion • FDR pushed for the formation of the United Nations • First meeting set in San Francisco in April 1945 • German reparations set at $20 billion • Issue of a provisional govt. in Poland was a sticking point between U.S. & USSR Potsdam Conference (July 1945) • Stalin sought safety from the West & distrusted even war-time allies • Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe, Stalin refused because he could not allow “anti-soviet” govts. so close to USSR • 1946 – Winston Churchill coins the term “Iron Curtain” when concerning Soviet influence in Eastern Europe • The victory by the Allies in WWII was not followed by peace but a cold war (a war of words w/ the threat of military action) • The Cold War stemmed from military, political, & ideological differences between the United States & Soviet Union and lasted nearly 40 years