FTCE SAE Biology Preparation Course

1. FTCE SAE Biology Preparation Course Instructor Valerie Ruwe vruwe@browardschools.com

2. Session Norms • No side bars • Work on assigned materials only • Keep phone on vibrate only • If a call must be taken please leave the room to do so

3. Session Agenda • Session I: Pre-Test, Competencies 1 & 2 • Session II: Competencies 3,4 • Session III: Competencies 5,6 • Session IV: Competencies 7,8 • Session V: Competencies 9,10

4. 3. KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF LIVING THINGS12 % • Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Compare and apply the laws of thermodynamics to living systems, including the role of enzymes in biological reactions • Predict the effects of changes in pH, temperature, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration on enzyme activity • Identify substrates, products, and relationships between glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, including the respiration of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids • Compare end products and energy yields of alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, and aerobic respiration. • Identify the raw materials and products of C-3 photosynthesis, including the Calvin cycle, light dependent and light independent reactions, and factors that affect their rate • Identify key differences between C-3, C-4, and CAM photosynthesis, and the ecological significance of these pathways

5. 3. KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES OF LIVING THINGS12 % • Identify and analyze the process of chemiosmosis in photosynthesis and respiration • Compare heterotrophy and autotrophy and the roles of these processes in the environment • Define antigen and antibody and recognize the antigen-antibody reaction • Compare active and passive immunity, identifying the positive and negative effects of vaccines and inoculations • Evaluate the roles of cell recognition (e.g., cell-to-cell signaling, autoimmune diseases, tissue rejection, cancer, pollen/stigma-style interaction) in normal and abnormal cell activity • Identify the effect of environmental factors on the biochemistry of living things (e.g., UV light effects on melanin and vitamin D production). • Identify the roles of ATP and ADP in cellular processes • Compare chemosynthetic and photosynthetic processes and the roles of organisms using these processes in the ecosystem • Identify cell-to-cell communication in living things (e.g., electrical, molecular, ionic)

6. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Water in Living Things • Ice Floats • Water is a solvent • Water has high specific heat capacity • Water has high heat of vaporization • Evaporative Cooling • Cohesion • Adhesion • Water held together by polar covalent bond • Between water molecules hydrogen bonding.

7. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Minerals • Inorganic Compounds • Cofactors for enzymes • Vitamins • Organic Compounds • Coenymes for enzymes

8. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Monomers are small molecules which may be joined together in a repeating fashion to form more complex molecules called polymers. • A polymer may be a natural or synthetic macromolecule comprised of repeating units of a smaller molecule (monomers). • Dehydration (Condensation) • A process of linking monomers, called dehydration condensation, involves the removal of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom to form water. • One way this might happen is where several generic monomers are shown with -OH groups that could be used for linking. • Hydrolysis • A process of breaking down polymers, called hydrolysis, involves the insertion of water.

9. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the proportion of 1:2:1. • The building blocks of carbohydrates are single sugars, called monosaccharides, such as glucose, C6H12O6, and fructose. • Disaccharides are double sugars formed when two monosaccharidesare joined • Polysaccharides such as starch,are chains of three or more monosaccharide's. • Glysocidc Linkage

10. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Lipids are nonpolar molecules that are not soluble in water. They include fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. • Fats are lipids that store energy. • Triglyceride: A typical fat contains three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule backbone. • Ester Bonds • Phospholipids • Head: phosphate group (choline) which is hydrophilic • Tail: two fatty acids which are hydrophobic • Make Up Cell Membrane

11. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells

12. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Proteins • A protein is a large molecule formed by linked smaller molecules called amino acids. • Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. • Twenty different amino acids are found in proteins. • Buiret test runs lilac when positive for protein. • Peptide Bond: between amino & carboxylic group

13. Unit 1 Structure of Proteins

14. Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells • Nucleic Acids • There are two types of nucleic acids—DNA and RNA—and each type contains four kinds of nucleotides. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, consists of two strands of nucleotides that spiral around each other. • RNA, or ribonucleic acid, consists of a single strand of nucleotides. • Nucleotide: phosphate group + Pentose Sugar + nitrogenous base • Pentose Sugar: DNA (deoxyribose) & RNA(ribose) • Nitrogenous Base • Purines (Double Rings) • Adenine & Guanine • Pyrminidines (Single Rings) • Cytosine, Thymine, & Uracil

15. Unit 1 Section Chemistry of Cells Structure of Nucleic Acids

16. Identify the roles of ATP and ADP in cellular processes • ATP or adenosine triphosphate, is a single nucleotide with two extra energy-storing phosphate groups. • When food molecules are broken down inside cells, some of the energy in the molecules is stored temporarily in ATP.

17. Identify the roles of ATP and ADP in cellular processes

18. Compare and apply the laws of thermodynamics to living systems, including the role of enzymes in biological reactions

19. Compare and apply the laws of thermodynamics to living systems, including the role of enzymes in biological reactions • The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy. • Even in a chemical reaction that releases energy, activation energy must be supplied before the reaction can occur. • Enzymes are substances that increase the speed of chemical reactions. • Most enzymes are proteins. • Enzymes are catalysts, which are substances that reduce the activation energy of a chemical reaction. • Substrate specific

20. Compare and apply the laws of thermodynamics to living systems, including the role of enzymes in biological reactions

21. Predict the effects of changes in pH, temperature, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration on enzyme activity • Temperature and pH value can alter an enzymes effectiveness. • The enzymes that are active at any one time in a cell determine what happens in that cell. • An enzyme’s shape determines its activity. Typically, an enzyme is a large protein with one or more deep folds on its surface. These folds form pockets called active sites. • Enzyme inhibitors: are molecules that interact in some way with the enzyme to prevent it from working in the normal manner. • Non-specific methods of inhibition include any physical or chemical changes which ultimately denatures the protein portion of the enzyme and are therefore irreversible.

22. Compare heterotrophy and autotrophy and the roles of these processesin the environment • Temperature and pH value can alter an enzymesDirectly or indirectly, almost all of the energy in living systems needed for metabolism comes from the sun. • Metabolism involves either using energy to build molecules or breaking down molecules in which energy is stored. • Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy. • Organisms that use energy from sunlight or from chemical bonds in inorganic substances to make organic compounds are called autotrophs. • The chemical energy in organic compounds can be transferred to other organic compounds or to organisms that consume food. • Organisms that must get energy from food instead of directly from sunlight or inorganic substances are called Heterotrophs. • Cellular respiration is a metabolic process similar to burning fuel.

23. Compare chemosynthetic and photosynthetic processes and the roles of organisms using these processes in the ecosystem • Ecosystems depend upon the ability of some organisms to convert inorganic compounds into food that other organisms can then exploit. • In most cases, primary food production occurs in a process called photosynthesis, which is powered by sunlight. • In a few environments, primary production happens though a process called chemosynthesis, which runs on chemical energy. Together, photosynthesis and chemosynthesis fuel all life on Earth. • The diagram below compares examples of these two processes - chemosynthesis in a seafloor hydrothermal vent bacterium, and photosynthesis in a terrestrial plant.

24. Identify the raw materials and products of C-3 photosynthesis, including the Calvin cycle, light dependent and light independent reactions, and factors that affect their rate The Stages of Photosynthesis • Stage 1 Energy is captured from sunlight. • Stage 2 Light energy is converted to chemical energy, which is temporarily stored in ATP and the energy carrier molecule NADPH. • Stage 3 The chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH powers the formation of organic compounds, using carbon dioxide, CO2.

25. Identify the raw materials and products of C-3 photosynthesis, including the Calvin cycle, light dependent and light independent reactions, and factors that affect their rate

26. Chapter 5 Electron Transport Chains of Photosynthesis

27. Identify the raw materials and products of C-3 photosynthesis, including the Calvin cycle, light dependent and light independent reactions, and factors that affect their rate Factors that Affect Photosynthesis • Photosynthesis is directly affected by various environmental factors. • In general, the rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases until all the pigments are being used. • Photosynthesis is most efficient within a certain range of temperatures.

28. Identify key differences between C-3, C-4, and CAM photosynthesis,and the ecological significance of these pathways

29. Identify key differences between C-3, C-4, and CAM photosynthesis,and the ecological significance of these pathways

30. Identify substrates, products, and relationships between glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, including the respiration of carbohydrates,fats, and amino acids • Cellular respiration occurs in two stages: Stage 1 Glucose is converted to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH. Stage 2 When oxygen is present, pyruvate and NADH are used to make a large amount of ATP. When oxygen is not present, pyruvate is converted to either lactate or ethanol and carbon dioxide.

31. Chapter 5 Cellular Respiration

32. Identify substrates, products, and relationships between glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, including the respiration of carbohydrates,fats, and amino acids Glycolysis • In the first stage of cellular respiration, glucose is broken down in the cytoplasm during a process called glycolysis. • As glucose is broken down, some of its hydrogen atoms are transferred to an electron acceptor called NAD+. This forms an electron carrier called NADH.

33. Identify substrates, products, and relationships between glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, including the respiration of carbohydrates,fats, and amino acids Krebs Cycle • Acetyl-CoA enters a series of enzyme-assisted reactions called the Krebs cycle, which follows five steps: • Step 1 Acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon compound, forming a six-carbon compound and releasing coenzyme A. • Step 2 Carbon dioxide is released from the six-carbon compound, forming a five-carbon compound. Electrons are transferred to NAD+, making a molecule of NADH. • Step 3 Carbon dioxide is released from the compound. A molecule of ATP and a molecule of NADH are made. • Step 4 The existing four-carbon compound is converted to a new four-carbon compound. Electrons are transferred to an electron acceptor called FAD, making a molecule of FADH2, another type of electron carrier. • Step 5 The new four-carbon compound is then converted to the four-carbon compound that began the cycle. Another molecule of NADH is produced.

34. Chapter 5 Krebs Cycle

35. Identify substrates, products, and relationships between glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport, including the respiration of carbohydrates,fats, and amino acids • Electron Transport Chain • In aerobic respiration, electrons donated by NADH and FADH2 pass through an electron transport chain. • In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport chain is located in the inner membranes of mitochondria. • At the end of the electron transport chain, hydrogen ions and spent electrons combine with oxygen molecules forming water molecules.

36. Chapter 5 Electron Transport Chain of Aerobic Respiration

37. Compare end products and energy yields of alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, and aerobic respiration • When oxygen is not present, NAD+ is recycled in another way. Under anaerobic conditions, electrons carried by NADH are transferred to pyruvate produced during glycolysis. • This process recycles NAD+ needed to continue making ATP through glycolysis. • The recycling of NAD+ using an organic hydrogen acceptor is called fermentation

38. Compare end products and energy yields of alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermentation, and aerobic respiration Lactic Acid and Alcoholic Fermentation • When oxygen is not present, cells recycle NAD+ through fermentation.

39. Identify and analyze the process of chemiosmosis in photosynthesis and respiration

40. Identify the effect of environmental factors on the biochemistry of livingthings (e.g., UV light effects on melanin and vitamin D production) • Melanocytes are pigment-producing cells in the stratum basale, the deepest layer of skin tissue. • Everyone has about the same number of melanocytes; what causes variations in skin color is the amount of melanin, or pigment, these cells produce and how spread out the pigment is from the center of the cell. • Also, in darker-skinned people, the melanin breaks down more slowly, and is seen in all the layers of the skin, whereas in fair-skinned people, it breaks down quickly and is rarely seen above the stratum basale.

41. Identify the effect of environmental factors on the biochemistry of livingthings (e.g., UV light effects on melanin and vitamin D production) • Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in very few foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. It is also produced endogenously when ultraviolet rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis. • Vitamin D obtained from sun exposure, food, and supplements • Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains adequate serum calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable normal mineralization of bone

42. Identify cell-to-cell communication in living things (e.g., electrical, molecular, ionic) • In multicellular organisms like us, cell-to-cell communication is of prime importance for proper development and function of the organisms as a whole. • Cells communicate with each other by different means. • Adjacent cells can communicate via cell surface molecules or via specific junctions that allow the exchange of solutes or the propagation of changes in membrane potential. • Cells that are not in direct contact with each other may communicate via soluble messenger molecules. • Once released, a messenger molecule acts on other cells that are responsive to it (target cells). • In general, responsiveness requires the presence of specific receptors for the messenger molecule at the target cell.

43. Evaluate the roles of cell recognition (e.g., cell-to-cell signaling, autoimmune diseases, tissue rejection, cancer, pollen/stigma-style interaction) in normal and abnormal cell activity • cell-to-cell recognition • (glycoproteins)

44. Evaluate the roles of cell recognition (e.g., cell-to-cell signaling, autoimmune diseases, tissue rejection, cancer, pollen/stigma-style interaction) in normal and abnormal cell activity • ny person (or animal) that develops an auto-Aimmunedisease, discovers that a certain part of his body, or many parts, become inflamed and painful. What is happening is that the cells of the Immune System are attacking those cells of the body that the Immune System considers “foreign.” • Normally, the cells of the Immune System recognize all the cells of the body and do not consider them “foreign cells.” Normally, no cells of the body are attacked by the Immune System. The Immune System is “trained” by a gland called the Thymus Gland to recognize all the cells of its own body. This “training” is still not completely understood. • However, the cells of the Immune System normally recognizes the body’s cells and only attacks “foreign” cells. • This extremely delicate situation is changed in people with “Auto-Immune” diseases, and the Immune System attacks specific cells of the body, thereby creating over 80 different diseases.

45. Evaluate the roles of cell recognition (e.g., cell-to-cell signaling, autoimmune diseases, tissue rejection, cancer, pollen/stigma-style interaction) in normal and abnormal cell activity • Transplant rejection is a process in which a transplant recipient's immune system attacks the transplanted organ or tissue. • These harmful substances have proteins called antigens on their surfaces. As soon as these antigens enter the body, the immune system recognizes them as foreign and attacks them. • In the same way, an organ that is not matched can trigger a blood transfusion reaction or transplant rejection. To help prevent this reaction, doctors "type" both the organ donor and the person who is receiving the organ. The more similar the antigens are between the donor and recipient, the less likely that the organ will be rejected.

46. Evaluate the roles of cell recognition (e.g., cell-to-cell signaling, autoimmune diseases, tissue rejection, cancer, pollen/stigma-style interaction) in normal and abnormal cell activity • Most antigens expressed by human cancer cells and recognized by host T cells and antibodies are nonmutated self antigens — molecules also expressed on the surface of normal cells. • These self antigens are ineffective at triggering immune responses against cancer cells, which provides one explanation for the difficulties in trying to immunize against human cancer. • A new study describes how tumors can avoid recognition by the immune system and how enhancing the affinity of the interaction between a self antigen and the MHC-I molecule may lead to cancer immunity.

47. Define antigen and antibody and recognize the antigen-antibody reaction • Antigens are defined as substances recognized by the body as foreign, causing the body to produce an antibody to react specifically with it • Factors determining whether an antigen will stimulate an antibody response: • Degree of foreignness.  Only human blood is transfused to humans.   • Size and complexity.  Although red cells are smaller than white blood cells, they tend to be more antigenic due to the complexity of the antigens on the cell surface.  Some are proteins and others are oligosaccharides. • Dose of antigen administered. How much antigen is the individual exposed to and what is the frequency of that exposure. • Genetic makeup of host may also dictate whether an antibody is produced.  Some individuals have a greater ability to make antibody and others have the antigen so they would not make the antibody. • Antibody: Proteins produced by lymphocytes as a result of stimulation by an antigen which can then interact specifically with that particular antigen.

48. Compare active and passive immunity, identifying the positive and negative effects of vaccines and inoculations. • Active Immunity - Vaccines are used for health purposes to expose our bodies to a particular antigen. These antigens are usually killed or severely weakened to decrease their potency. After destroying these pathogens, the body stores some T cells as memory cells, due to the fact they code for a particular antigen and can be when needed. This memory in T cells can be a means of artificially acquiring immunity while a genuine attack by a pathogen is a naturally acquired type of immunity. • Passive Immunity - This is where immunity to particular antigens as a result of genetic traits passed on from parents rendering the offspring immune to a particular pathogenic threat.

49. Compare active and passive immunity, identifying the positive and negative effects of vaccines and inoculations. • A substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases, prepared from the causative agent of a disease, its products, or a synthetic substitute, treated to act as an antigen without inducing the disease

50. Break time!!!