Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas

1. Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas

2. I. Classic – Era Culture and Society in Mesoamerica, 600 – 900 • No political unification but similar cultural practices/social structures • Olmec - foundation • Hereditary political/religious elites ruled over peasants • Agricultural practices established earlier (irrigation, terraced hillsides, etc.) • Change: reach and power of leaders/elites

3. 600 CE – largest city in Americas religious architecture reflected astronomy (pyramids to sun, moon, etc.) Quetzalcoatl – feathered serpent (culture god, originator of agriculture and the arts) Practiced human sacrifice Growth of urban populations Chinampas Population growth – new housing, importance of pottery and obsidian tools Elites controlled state bureaucracy, tax collection and commerce – different lifestyle than masses Did NOT concentrate power in hands of a single ruler, no evidence of an overall ruling dynasty Ruled by alliances of elite families? Military protected long distance trade/forced peasants to give surplus to the city NOT an imperial state controlled by a military elite 750 CE – fall: invaders, conflict within elites…destruction of temples A. Teotihuacán

4. B. The Maya • Geography/climate • Never a unified empire – rival Mayan kingdoms led by hereditary rulers • High population centers required advanced agricultural practices • Public architecture (pyramids) – religious/political purposes • Maya cosmology • Rulers – religious/political duties • Torture/sacrifice of captives, Maya military forces sought captives rather than territory • Fasting, ritual, purification happened BEFORE warfare • Role of women among elites • Women healers and shamans, household gardens/economies • Maya calendars: solar, ritual, “long” • Mathematical achievements • Hieroglyphics • 800 – 900 CE – major urban centers of the Maya abandoned or destroyed • Fall disputed: epidemic disease, disrupted trade, declining agricultural activity led to conflict

5. II. The Postclassic Period in Mesoamerica, 900 – 1500 • Differences between classic and postclassic civilizations: population increase, larger armies, political institutions in control of larger territories A. The Toltecs • Borrowed from legacy of Teotihuacán14th century – Aztecs believed that Toltecs the source of all culture in Mesoamerican world (astronomy) • First conquest - state based on military power – extended control from Mexico City to Central America • 968 CE – Toltec capital of Tula constructed in grand architecture, temples, décor much more warlike, scenes of human sacrifice • Two kings ruled Toltec state together, division weakened Toltec power led to destruction of Tula, legend among Aztecs: • Topiltzin – king and a priest of the cult of Quetzalcoatl accepted exile in the east – growing Toltec influence among the Maya of Yucatan Peninsula • 1175 CE – northern invaders overcame Tula, but Toltec influence strong over later peoples

6. Adopted social structures of Toltec First served more powerful neighbors as surfs/mercenaries, relocated to islands near Lake Texcoco 1325 CE – Twin capitals of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco Kinship based organization survived but lost power relative to monarchs/hereditary aristocrats No absolute power for rulers - aristocrats chose ruler from ruling family New ruler needed to prove himself through conquest Social divisions starker – made possible by military expansion Territorial expansion gave Aztec warrior elite land/peasant labor Some social mobility Clan social responsibilities, loss of hunting/fishing grounds By 1500 CE – HUGE inequalities in wealth/privilege Aztec kings/aristocrats legitimized authority through elaborate rituals – sacrifice B. The Aztecs

7. (Aztecs continued…) Labor projects (dike in Lake Texcoco) Tribute system – not symbolic, NECESSARY to sustain urban population Merchants – function and power Trade –bartered (gold, cloth, etc.) goods from far away Diverse markets HUGE urban population – 500,000 between two capitals by 1500 Religious rituals dominated – large number of gods (male/females) Cult of Huitzilopochtli – war, Sun, need for human sacrifice Two temples: war and agriculture Human sacrifice on much greater scale - war captives, criminals, slaves, tribute victims Religious AND political: enemy and subject states were victims, public sacrifices – deviancy NOT tolerated

8. Northern Peoples • Underlying Principle – connection between maize, irrigation & social structure • Hohokam = Arizona • Mexican influence most obvious • Irrigation system: 1000 C.E • Anasazi • Four corners region • Long term effect of adapting maize, beans & squash • Kivas • Chaco Canyon: Pueblo Bonito township • Social structure • Role of women • Merchants, roads • Connection to Mesoamerican culture • Decline of Chaco Canyon and changes to township location = evidence of warfare over limited arable land

9. Northern Peoples Continued • Mississippian Mound Builders • 700-1500 C.E, • Economically different to Anasazi • Chiefdom tradition; religious & secular purpose • Urbanization a result of agriculture, trade and technological advancement • Common urban plan visible (reflects social structure) • Largest urban centre: Cahokia (St Louis) • 20,000 people, rivaling Maya • Influence based on access to rivers • Status reflected in burial sacrifices • Decline seems to be connected to environmental & population pressures rather than war

10. Andean Civilizations • Environment key in development of reliable agricultural technologies & therefore social structure • Chavin – need to connect coast to interior • Technologies required – calendars, terracing, freeze-dried foods, llamas • Organization of human labor vital • Khipus • Collectivized road building, urban construction, drainage, irrigation & production • Ayllu • Mit’a • Role of women in society

11. Moche • 600 C.E, Peru • Cultural dominacne rather than political • Ritual & economic use of food • Social stratification; mit’a, theocratic (warrior priests) • Use of gold & burial practice • Commoners; labor dues to ayllu & elite • Importance of craft • Decline = earthquake, flooding, drought & erosion challenged the power of theocracy whose power was connected to controlling environment

12. Tiwanaku & Wari • Highlands culture paralleling the Moche • Tiwanaku – Bolivia • Intensive irrigation similar to chinampas; reclaimed land & raised fields • Stone masonry extremely high quality – pyramids & reservoirs – labor force • Limited metallurgy • Vast empire (military) pre-cursor to Inca? • Cultural influence east & south into Chile but NOT a metropolis • Wari – Peru • Dependency versus joint capital theories • Larger city with wall & temple • Both Tiwanaku & Wari decline around 1000 C.E – Inca inherit political legacy

13. Inca • Vast imperial empire; “land of four corners” • Originally chiefdom based with reciprocal gift giving • 1430’s military expansion – Cuzco capital • Unlike most Mesoamerican cultures Inca used state military power rather than tributary systems • Pastoralist – influenced religion & politics – ruler/gods obligation like shepherd to flock • Mit’a foundation for ayllu base – provided labor force & took care of elderly/sick • Imperial administration based on hereditary rulers (ayllu) –avoided rebellion through hostage of people & gods • Royal family descended from Sun; bound by rituals, main ritual connected to warfare & conquest

14. Inca Continued • Cuzco urbanization • Building/stone masonry • City laid out in shape of puma • Centre = temples & palaces • Importance of sacrifice & magnificence • Cultural achievement based on earlier Andean civilizations – khipus, weaving, tools • Prosperity rather than technology growth; Machu Picchu • Increasingly elite cut off from lives of commoners, reduced equality & diminished local authority • Decline 1525; civil war after succession feud. Weakened imperial institutions & fueled conquered peoples resentment. Economy & politics undermined just as the Europeans arrived