Loïc Ballarini Université de Lorraine, CREM loic.ballarini@univ-lorraine.fr | ballarini.fr/loic

1. Programme intensif Erasmus Production de l’information et pratiques journalistiques en Europe Camaret-sur-Mer, 25 août – 5 septembre 2014 Media in Turkey Loïc Ballarini Université de Lorraine, CREM loic.ballarini@univ-lorraine.fr | ballarini.fr/loic

2. A Few Words About Turkey • Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti), established in 1923, secular • Capital: Ankara / Largest city: Istanbul (14 M) • 783.000 km2, 77 M inhabitants • President: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan / PM: Ahmet Davutoğlu • Ethnic groups: 70-75% Turks, 18% Kurds • Religion: 98% muslims (mostly sunni islam with 15-25% alevi)

3. I. A Short History of Turkish Media 1. Birth of the Press in the Ottoman Empire • First newspapers founded by foreigners → propaganda • 1795 : Le Bulletin de Nouvelles (Pera, French embassy, → 1797) • 1828 : Vekayi-i Misriye (“Egyptian Affairs”, → ?) → 1st paper published by Ottomans (in arabic and ottoman turkish) • 1831 : Le Moniteur ottoman (then Takvim-i Vekayi, “Calendar of Affairs”) → 1st Empire official paper • 1840 : Ceride-i Havadis (“Register of Events”, → 1922) → 1st non-official paper (founded by an Englishman) • 1860 : Tercüman-ı Ahvâl (“Interpreter of Events”) → 1st non-official paper founded by Turks and published in ottoman turkish • 1864 : Press code and censorship office • End of the 19th century: Western values spread thanks to press

4. I. A Short History of Turkish Media 2. 1923-1950: One-party Republic • 1923 : Proclamation of the Republic. Important role of the press in its establishment and strenghtening → Mustafa Kemal “Atatürk” launches his paper in 1920 (Hakimiyet-i Milliye, “National Sovereignity”) → repression against opposition papers → during transition to new, latin alphabet (1929), state provided financial support to publishers, thus creating a dependence • 1927 : first two radio channels founded in Ankara and Istanbul (owned by public enterprises Anadolu Ajansı et Türkiye İş Bankası). → “broadcasting became part of the state machinery from day one even though it was not directly run by the state.” (B. Sümer, 2010) • 1936-1964 : state monopoly in radio broadcasting • Law no. 3837 (22 May 1940): BGYEM (Basın Yayın ve Enformasyon Genel Müdürlüğü, Directorate General of Press and Information), which serves national ideology • 1935-36 : Traditional music forbidden on radio

5. I. A Short History of Turkish Media 3. 1950-1983: Multiparty and Military Coups • 1947 : Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan → Turkey becomes a multiparty state → 1950 general elections won by the DP (Demokrat Parti, conservative) • Short period of liberalisation, then political power resumes manipulating media • 1960’s: leftist, nationalist and Islamic movements become visible in the public sphere • 1964 : establisment of TRT (Türkiye Radio ve Televisyon Kurumu, Turkish Radio and Television Broadcasting Corporation) • 1967 : 1st TV channel (24-hour broadcasting since 1974) • Military coups in1960, 1971 et 1980

6. I. A Short History of Turkish Media 4. 1983-today: Market Liberalisation • November 1983: End of junta by ANAP victory on general elections (ANAP, today Anavatan: Anavatan Partisi, Motherland Party, centre-right nationalist) → economic liberalisation → transfer of media ownership from journalist families to corporations • 1990 : Magic Box (then Star 1), 1st private TV channel • 1990’s: towards media holdings, sensationalist journalism (“tabloidisation”), deregulation • Struggle for audience between media, but common defense of state interests → before the “post-modern military coup” (28 Februar 1997 ), media published fictitious information about the rise of Islamism in Turkey • 2000-2001 : Financial crisis. 5,000 journalists fired • 2002 : general elections won by AKP (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, Justice and Development party) • 2003: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Prime Minister

7. II. Today’s Turkish Media Landscape 1. Concentration of the Media • 9 holdings own the majority of mass media (press, TV, radio, web) • Doğan: Industry, energy, retail, real estate, tourism… and media • Dailies : Hürriyet, Radikal, Posta, Fanatik… approx. 40% of total circulation • Magazines: Burda, Capital, Auto Show, Elle… • Press agency : DHA (Doğan Haber Ajansı) • TV : Kanal D (acquired from Doğuş in 1994), TNT, CNN Türk (50%)… • Radio : Radyo D, SlowTürk, CNN Türk Radyo… • Çukurova: Energy, mobile telephony (Turkcell), industry… and media (most of them sold in 2013 to TMSF) • Satellite TV operator: Digiturk • TMSF (Savings Deposit Insurance Fund of Turkey) • Dailies: Akşam, Güneş • Magazines: Alem, Stuff, Platinum… • TV: Show TV (now Ciner), Skytürk360, Lig TV… • Radio: Alem FM, Lig Radyo

8. II. Today’s Turkish Media Landscape 1. Concentration of the Media • Çalık: textile, energy, construction, finance, mining, telecom… and media • Dailies: Sabah, Yeni Asır, Fotomaç • Magazines : Cosmopolitan, Forbes, Auto Moto Spor, Aktüel • TV : ATV • + Radio, books, production, press agency → Turkuvaz Media Group (media activities) sold to Zirve in June 2014 • Doğuş: Finance, high-end automotive, construction, tourism… and media • Magazines : Vogue, GQ, National Geographic… • TV : Star TV (acquired from Doğan in 2011), NTV, CNBC-E… • Radio : NTV Radyo, Kral FM, Virgin Radyo… • Feza: media and… Fethullah Gülen Islamic movement • Daily: Zaman • Magazines: Aksiyon, Yeni Bahar • Press agency: Cihan • TV: Irmak TV • Radio : Radyo Cihan

9. II. Today’s Turkish Media Landscape 2. Television Audiences

10. II. Today’s Turkish Media Landscape 3. Dailies’ Circulation

11. III. Journalism in Turkey 1. World’s Largest Prison for Journalists 1.1. 2013, Second Worst Year on Record for Jailed Journalists • Worldwide in 2013 (Reporters Without Borders) • 71 journalists killed (88 in 2012, 66 in 2011) • 6 media assistants, 39 netizens and citizen-journalists killed • 826 journalists arrested (900 in 2012) Map: Committee to Protect Journalists

13. III. Journalism in Turkey 1. World’s Largest Prison for Journalists 1.2. Imprisoned For Their Work as Journalists • According to CPJ, 40 journalists were imprisoned in Turkey on 1 December 2013 → more than in China, Iran, Eritrea • Where does this figure come from? → letter from the Minister of Justice on November 2013 (54 journalists) → inverstigations of CPJ “Out of the 54 people listed, CPJ independently confirmed—through careful perusal of indictments, press reports, publicly available legal documents, and testimony by lawyers, colleagues, and the defendants--that 40 of the journalists were imprisoned for their work. In the 14 remaining cases, CPJ concluded there was not sufficient information to determine that the imprisonments were work-related. In those cases, CPJ continues to investigate.” (source) • Most of journalists are imprisoned without having being judged • Most of imprisoned journalists are in custody for their work as journalists

14. III. Journalism in Turkey 2. Repressive Laws 2.1. The Liberal Façade of the Constitution • Article 25: Freedom of Thought and Opinion • “c1. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought and opinion. No one shall be compelled to reveal his thoughts and opinions for any reason or purpose, nor shall anyone be blamed or accused on account of his thoughts and opinions.” Article 28: Freedom of the Press • “c1. (As amended on October 17, 2001) The press is free, and shall not be censored. The establishment of a printing house shall not be subject to prior permission or the deposit of a financial guarantee. • c2. The state shall take the necessary measures to ensure freedom of the press and freedom of information.” • The “foundation of the Turkish society” • “What lies beyond this liberal façade, however, is a framework where nationalism, statism and cultural conservatism emerge as the supreme values looming over individual rights.” (Kurban & Sözeri, 2012, p. 35)

15. III. Journalism in Turkey 2. Repressive Laws 2.2. Media-specific Laws • All cited laws as of August 2012 • Press Law • Protections • freedom of the press • the right to information • the right of reply to defamatory or untruthful news • Journalists’ news sources • Cases of limitation • “national security”, “territorial integrity” and “state secrets” Broadcasting Law (no. 6112) • Content of the media must respect “the national and moral values of society, general morality and the protection of the family.” (Art. 8)

16. III. Journalism in Turkey 2. Repressive Laws 2.3. The Penal Code • Article 301 • (After amendment of 30 April 2008) Denigrating the Turkish Nation, the State of the Turkish Republic, the Institutions and Organs of the State • A person who publicly denigrates Turkish Nation, the State of the Republic of Turkey, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the Government of the Republic of Turkey or the judicial bodies of the State, shall be sentenced a penalty of imprisonment for a term of six months and two years. • A person who publicly denigrates the military or security structures shall be punishable according to the first paragraph. • Expressions of thought intended to criticize shall not constitute a crime. • The prosecution under this article shall be subject to the approval of the Minister of Justice.

17. III. Journalism in Turkey 2. Repressive Laws 2.3. The Penal Code • Other articles • Breaching the confidentiality of criminal investigations (art. 285) : betwen one and three years imprisonment • Attempting to influence judicial bodies (art. 288), 6 months to 3 years → definition of “influence” is very vague → revealing or publishing details of the prosecution or defence can come under this article • Obtaining confidential information (Art. 334) and revealing it (Art. 336). A new publication of already public information will suffice • Criticising institutions: insult (Art. 125, 299, 300), undermining basic national interests (Art. 305), discouraging people from doing military service (Art. 318): between six months and two years • Criticising people: violation of personal privacy (Art. 134), defaming a person (Art. 267), incited hatred (Art. 216): 1-3 years

18. III. Journalism in Turkey 2. Repressive Laws 2.4. Anti-terror Law (no: 3713) Article 1 “Terrorism is any kind of act done by one or more persons belonging to an organisation with the aim of changing the characteristics of the Republic as specified in the Constitution, its political, legal, social, secular and economic system, damaging the indivisible unity of the State with its territory and nation, endangering the existence of the Turkish State and Republic, weakening or destroying or seizing the authority of the State, eliminating fundamental rights and freedoms, or damaging the internal and external security of the State, public order or general health by means of pressure, force and violence, terror, intimidation, oppression or threat.” → most decisions of European Court of Human Rights against Turkey

19. III. Journalism in Turkey 2. Repressive Laws 2.4. Anti-terror Law (no: 3713) • Article 6 • 1-3 years for “those who print or publish leaflets and declarations of terrorist organisations.” • Suspension for 2-4 weeks for publications inciting people to commit crimes, glorifying them and those responsible and making propaganda for a “terrorist” organisation Article 7 • 1-5 years for anyone “making propaganda” for a “terrorist organisation.” → “making propaganda” is not defined… An interview will suffice → “Broadly worded anti-terror and penal code statutes allow Turkish authorities to conflate the coverage of banned groups with membership” (CPJ, 2013)

20. III. Journalism in Turkey 3. Self-censorship 3.1. History and the Effect of Laws • Military coups (1960, 1971, 1980) always followed by a period of repression of the press • 1982 Constitution inspired by nationalism and conservatism • Legal framework (media-specific laws, penal code, anti-terror law) has a deterrent effect on journalists 3.2. Relations between Media and Power • Highly concentrated ownership of the media, even more concentrated advertising revenues • Links between media owners and economic power • Links between media owners and political power: “The media owners’ preoccupation with keeping good relations with the state has been more decisive in self-censorship in comparison with direct threats facing journalists” Sözeri & Kurban, Caught in the Wheels of Power, p. 51

21. III. Journalism in Turkey 3. Self-censorship 3.3. Working Conditions of Journalists • Law no: 5953 on the relations between employer and employee in the media sector (1952) → a lot of journalists hired under the work law → a lot of journalists hired informally • Average wage: 1250 TL (543 €) | 560 TL (243 €) for “informals”

22. References • History and economy of the turkish media • Sözeri & Kurban, 2012. Caught in the Wheels of Power, Tesev • Elmas & Kurban, 2011. Communicating Democracy - Democratizing Communication, Tesev • Sözer & Güney, 2011. The Political Economy of the Press in Turkey. A Sectoral Analysis, Tesev Freedom of the press • T. Hammarberg, Freedom of expression and media freedom in Turkey, European Council, 2011. • CPJ, 2013 prison census: 211 journalists jailed worldwide, 1 December 2013 • CPJ, Second worst year on record for jailed journalists, 18 December 2013 • CPJ, Turkey's Press Freedom Crisis, October 2012 • RWB, Harassment of Turkey’s media since January 2014, 7 May 2014 • RSF, La Turquie, première prison au monde pour les journalistes,19 déc. 2012 Independent media with news in english • Bianet, www.bianet.org/english