Containment: Confining Soviet Power, 1947-9

1. Points to Consider Containment was the governing principle of American policy towards the USSR in the Cold War. In this lecture we will: Learn the meaning of the term Containment. We will examine the aims of containment Then we will have a full discussion on the measures taken by the US to check the expansion of communism both in Europe and in Asia during the opening phase of the Cold War. Lastly, we will construct a balance-sheet, weighing the successes of containment in this period against its failures. Containment: Confining Soviet Power, 1947-9 Unit 3

2. 1947 12 March 7 June 26 July 1948 24 June 25 June 1949 4 April 12 May 11 September Truman addressed Congress on the issue of financial aid to Greece & Turkey; the Truman Doctrine Announcement of the Marshall Plan Congress passed the National Security Act Soviets imposed road, rail and river blockade on west Berlin Berlin airlift began Creation of NATO Soviets lift Berlin Blockade Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was established Key Dates

3. I. Introduction A. 1947 US adopted a policy of containment. 1. Architect of new policy was George Kennan a) Long Telegram i) assumption was USSR would constantly attempt to extend its power by applying pressure on the weak points beyond its own sphere of influence b) USSR would extend its power through existing governments using methods such as propaganda, and organizing strikes among industrial workers c) Broad objective of containment was to prevent the spread of communism beyond those areas where it already existed. i) it was considered essential to stop a hostile USSR from moving into western Europe.

5. B. Kennan had identified 5 world centers of military & industrial power: USSR, US, Japan, Britain, and the complex of coal mines & steel works in the Ruhr Valley in west Germany. 1. Only 1 of these were in the hands of the USSR. C. Containment was not purely a defensive posture. 1. US policy makers calculated that the US was more powerful then the USSR. 2. US $ would be used to nurture the countries of w. Europe & Japan as stable, democratic, and capitalist states. 3. Also, US would do its best to counter communism in peripheral areas such as Korea & Vietnam. D. Between 1947-9 US was confident in its power and also took advantage of its “atomic diplomacy” to launch a series of bold initiatives aimed at assuming leadership of the “free world.” 1. The initiatives included: subsidies to western Europe (Marshall Plan), building of a new German state, the formation of the North Atlantic treaty pact, and a massive transfer of $ to Japan.

6. II. Truman Doctrine Key Issues: What was the immediate historical background to the Truman Doctrine? What important principle did Truman announce? A. Containment was put into practice in Greece & Turkey 1st. 1. Greece was @ war and Turkey was always a target of Russian expansion 2. Britain had protected the eastern Mediterranean against Russian encroachment until 1947. a) They informed US in Feb. 47’ they could no longer afford to give financial support to the 2 countries & then pulled out leaving a vacuum for the US to fill. 3. US State Department argued that once Russia pulled Greece & Turkey into their sphere they would try to extend their influence into the middle east and get control of the vital oil resources there a) State Dep. used “rotten apple” analogy to explain the situation B. Truman could not be sure that Congress would support sending US $ & troops to Greece & Turkey.

8. C. Another problem was Republicans controlled Congress after 1946 midterm elections. 1. Democrats had occupied the White House since 33’ Republicans campaigned on the slogan “Had Enough.” 2. Truman had to persuade a hostile & fiscally conservative Republican Congress to allocate the funds for operations in Greece & Turkey D. In order to get the o.k. from Congress, Truman exaggerated the threat posed by communism & dramatized the conflict between the US & USSR as a contest between 2 competing ideas. 1. Truman’s tactic worked. Congress gave him $250 million for Greece & $150 million for Turkey. 2. The Greek & Turkish governments were hardly models of democracy. They were corrupt & imprisoned their political opponents. They did some of the things Truman had attributed to communism in his speech. 3. Hostility to communism rather than any attachment to democratic values was the test of whether overseas governments should receive US aid.

9. E. Even though the US never thought they would go to war with the USSR, they did some things to prepare incase. 1. Created a system of selective service, increased its stockpile of atomic bombs from 13 to 50 and made 18 B-50 bombers capable of delivering the bombs. 2. The most important measure taken to the perceived thereat was the National Security Act (1947). a) designed to improve US’s war-making capacity by merging the old War & Navy Departments into a new enlarged Defense Department. b) The act also established the CIA c) The act also created the National Security Council (NSC) which reports directly to the president

11. III. Marshall Plan Key Issues: What were the motives for the Marshall Plan? How and why did it intensify the emerging Cold War? A. US now turned its attention to western Europe, the area of the world seen as the most susceptible to Russian influence. B. On 5 June 1947, George Marshall announced a massive program of economic assistance for the countries of w. Europe 1. it proposed large $ grants which w. European states would use to purchase food, raw materials & industrial machinery in the US. C. There were various motives for the Marshall Plan. 1. would help farmers & falling business in US buy creating a captive market in Europe for US goods. 2. Real function was the containment of communism a) sever cold in 1946-47 was accompanied w/ coal shortages& hungry Germans had staged food riots in western occupation zone.

12. D. The rise of the left in Europe was a reality. 1. There was real fear in Washington that the Italian commies might win elections due in April 1948. a) continuing economic crisis & growing support for European commies alarmed Washington. E. The domination of continental Europe by a hostile totalitarian state organized around a communist ideology would threaten the national security of the US. 1. Consequently, a large-scale transfusion of $ to western Europe was necessary to stimulate coal production, raise industrial output & create employment. F. The USSR & the countries of eastern Europe were invited to join the Marshall Plan. 1. The US wanted eastern Europe to join because that would lesson the sphere of influence of Russia 2. Stalin declined for that very reason.

14. a) He also “cautioned” the Checks & Poles against participation 3. USSR saw Marshall Aid as an attempt to create an American economic empire on their borders 4. US would attempt to sell their goods in eastern Europe & purchase critical raw materials such as Polish coal, leaving the USSR w/out resources & markets & economically isolated. G. The Marshall Plan & rejection by Stalin was key. It signaled the economic & political division of Europe. H. The USSR created their own version of the Marshall Plan called the Molotov Plan. 1. Economically, Europe was forming itself into 2 blocs. 2. Politically the divide between east & west also became sharper a) The Cominform was established. It was the Comitern in a new guise. i) its functions were to circulate propaganda abroad, liaise w/ the communist parties of western Europe & assist their attempts to obstruct elected governments.

15. ii) Marshall Aid went ahead in W. Europe iii)There is no doubt that the economic recovery of post-war western Europe was greatly accelerated by the Marshall Plan IV. Creation of a West German State Key Issues: How, why & w/ what consequences did the United States establish a new German State? A. The rapid rise of Soviet power caused the US to revive Germany more quickly than had been the plan. 1. America took the lead in arguing for an early end to military occupation & the combination of the 3 western zones into a West German state that would become a buffer against communism in central Europe. 2. W. Germany was seen as a prime site of Soviet pressure according to the policy of containment. B. US Marshall plan $ began to pour into West German zones. A number of steps were taken to win the support of the German people: 1. restrictions on industrial production were relaxed a) this was also intended to remind the Germans that the occupiers did not want the harsh external controls of German everyday life to continue forever.

18. b) The day-to-day running of west Germany was increasingly shared between the occupying powers & Germany themselves. c) In 48’ the 3 powers met to draw up a constitution for a new w. German state to come into existence in 49’. C. A important measure prior to setting up the new w. Germany was the introduction of a new currency in 3 w. zones in June 48’. 1. Old German currency had lost its value 2. Stalin feared a rearmed & economically strong Germany. a) Stalin’s response is a land blockade of Berlin. b) Berlin was deep in Russian zone. They relied heavily on aid along road, rail & land corridors. In June of 48’ Russia cuts all this off. 3. This was part of Stalin’s “war of nerves” plan w/ the west. a) attempting to gain territorial advantage & concessions by all means short of war. “Prodding the capitalist world w/ the tip of a bayonet.”

21. b) For his part Truman was determined to stay in Berlin without going to war w/ the Soviets. c) On 30 June Marshall announced, “We are in Berlin & we intend to stay.” i) US was able to stay in Berlin by supplying W. Berlin from the air. d) In May 1949 Stalin ended the blockade. 4. The Berlin airlift was the first crisis of the Cold War in Europe & marked a major victory for the US. a) US was determined to resist Soviet pressure in Berlin. b) Washington believed evacuations of Berlin would have been a sign of weakness. c) policy makers in Washington believed that satisfying Nazi Germany’s territorial demands in the 30s fed their appetite for more which would eventually lead to war. i) Washington did not want to make that mistake again w/ Russia.

23. d) Withdraw from Berlin would also have depressed the moral of west Germans. 5. The end of the blockade was followed closely by free elections to choose the 1st West German government. a) New Federal Republic of Germany formally began its life in September 1949 b) New Republic not allowed an army c) In Oct. 49’ the Soviet occupation zone became the German Democratic Republic. WHY? i) However, the new East Germany was firmly within the Soviet sphere. ii) it was a one-party state governed by the German Communist Party under the name German Socialist Unity Party (SED) iii) Large #s of troops stationed there to ensure newest member remain loyal to Moscow

25. D. The partition of Germany was a microcosm of the ÷ of Europe. The Cold War meant that neither superpower could allow the whole of Germany to fall within the other’s sphere of influence. 1) Both the US & Russia therefore decided that having half of Germany was better than having none. V. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1949 Key Issue: Why did the United States join NATO? A. In 49’ the evolving American sphere in w. Europe was further consolidated when the US signed the treaty that established NATO. 1) Important because this was the 1st treaty the US had signed w/ a European state since the Americas had concluded an alliance w/ France to drive the British out of the 13 colonies. B. NATO was a military alliance of 12 states 1) US, Canada, Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, & Iceland. 2) it adopted the principle of collective security. “An attack on 1 was an attack on all.”

29. 3) It has been said NATO was created “to keep Russians out, the Germans down, & the Americans in.” a) Some truth exists in this: i) Britain & France realized defense of western Europe was only viable w/ US participation. ii) They wanted permanent US presence to guarantee against Russian attack iii) In the case of the frogs (France) NATO is also helpful shield against a resurgent Germany. C. US joined NATO 1st for political 2nd for military reasons. 1) it became clear to Washington that US membership of a security pact was a precondition of French and, to a lesser extent, British consent to w. German statehood. D. In addition, the creation of NATO: 1) tied a relatively strong Britain more closely to a still recovering western Europe. 2) calmed French security fears & offered anxious Germans protection against the Soviet Union.

30. E. NATO membership brought several military advantages to the US: 1) sole responsibility for the defense of Europe in case of invasion from USSR 2) valuable bases from which air attacks against the USSR could be launched 3) a framework for a eventual w. German contribution to European defense. VI. US Policy towards Asia Key Issue: How did America attempt to contain communism in different countries within Asia? A. US employed the policy of containment in Asia on a smaller scale then in Europe B. Principal means of containment were: 1) conversion of Japan into a satellite of the US 2) substantial financial assistance to anti-communist forces in China & Vietnam 3) support for an independent non-communist S. Korea

33. 4) a war plan to defend a crescent of offshore Pacific islands against an aggressor (USSR)- the so called “defensive perimeter strategy. C. Japan 1) After unconditional surrender in August 1945 Japan was allowed to keep its emperor Hirohito as a figurehead but was subject to military occupation. a) US was dominant occupying power under command of General Douglas MacArthur b) MacArthur’s power were huge. He embarked on a program of national-building in Japan. 2) the main objectives of the occupation policy was demilitarization & democratization a) Japan’s armed forces were demolished b) stockpiles of weapons were destroyed c) a “no war” clause (Article 9) was written into a new Japanese constitution (May 1947). d) Some of Japan’s vast industrial combines broken up.

34. e) right to strike was recognized f) trade unions were legalized g) political parties, including the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) were recognized. 3) There were also punitive aspects to the US occupation: a) war criminals were brought to trial b) Japan was forced to pay reparations to its former enemies in the Pacific war 4) However, the onset of the Cold War & US concern about the growing influence in Asia altered US policy from 1947. a) Japan was considered the most important of all countries in Asia to US national security. WHY? i) Anchoring Japan to the US was the cornerstone of the strategy of containment in Asia. 5) Yet US plans for Japan were jeopardized by the economic situation there. a) war had resulted in serious loss of life and property b) agricultural & industrial output was low, prices were soaring and unemployment was widespread.

36. 6) As in Germany, US worried about allure of communism to a defeated & demoralized people. a) There were some grounds for such a fear: i) Communist Party was gaining support ii) 1949 opened w/ a series of strikes iii) Japanese communist pulled 3 million votes in elections. 7) As always, US believed best way to counter communism was to remove the economic conditions which created it. 8) The emphasis of the occupation policy shifted in 47’ to economic reconstruction. a) some big industrial corporations were left intact & restrictions on production were relaxed. b) In 48’ government workers were forbidden to strike c) US occupation authorities started arresting communist sympathizers in Japanese trade union movement.

37. d) In 49’ Congress authorizes $500 million in aid 9) US occupation became less harsh in an attempt to buy the support of the Japanese people. a) as a result, prosecution of war criminals slowed down b) responsibility for day-to-day government increasingly handed over to the Japanese. c) Japanese police forces were strengthened d) plans were laid for a eventual end to occupation & a non-punitive peace treaty. 10) The course of US policy had been set. Japan’s emergence as one of US’s closest allies in the post war world had begun. D. China 1) Attempts by US in China to erode influence of Chinese communist had met with little success (1946). 2) Marshall wanted Jiang to come to terms with the communist, Jiang felt he could beat the CCP on the battlefield. a) Marshall knew total victory in the civil war was impossible. Feared USSR would be forced to get involved.

38. b) relations between Marshall & Jiang were close to breaking point at end of 46’ c) Marshall recommended terminating aid to US’s longstanding ally all together. i) contributions to the KMT were sharply reduced. 3. despite any support from USSR, the CCP had been making gains in the civil war. a) US now feared either direct or indirect Soviet control over a complex of raw material sources & industrial sites in north-east Asia. i) Russian troops already occupied N. Korea & now the CCP had a grip on Manchuria & N. China (areas w/ extensive iron, ore, & coal reserves). ii) For the US, the Cold War was as much a conflict over the control of resources as a battle of ideas. b) US resumes substantial aid to Jiang, but aid is modest when compared to aid to Japan.

40. 4. US policy soon had to adjust to the new balance of power emerging in China. a) 1948 had more battlefield victories for the CCP i) Nationalists were now losing the civil war 5. US objective in China was no longer to achieve Nationalists control but to pin down the CCP into northern China. a) avert communist control of the interior & the south. b) Nationalist control of @ least these areas was fundamental to US strategy in the Far East. (recovery of Japan depended on it) 6. US aid to the Nationalists continued. 7. The surrender of Jiang’s commander in the Beijing region in early 1949 heralded the collapse of the Nationalist war effort. a) communist victory was now only a matter of time. b) Mao’s forces would soon cross the Yangtze River & dominate China.

42. E. Korea, Vietnam & the Defensive Perimeter 1) US had already partitioned Korea into 2 occupation zones in 1947. (was originally set up as temporary partition) a) Long term goal was to unify Korea under a government chosen by free & fair elections. b) worsening Soviet-US relations meant neither side could agree on terms for elections & unification. c) Must hang on to S. Korea because communism must be contained on the Asian periphery. d) US was already concerned about the advancement of communism in neighboring Manchuria & the indirect control Moscow had over Northern Korea through its protégé Kim Il Sung. e) Soviet domination of entire Korean peninsula would deprive recovering Japan of an important trading partner. 2) Two separate Korean states emerged in 1948: the Democratic People’s Republic of China (north) & the Republic of Korea (south).

44. a) Soviet troops left the north in 48’ but Moscow remained friendly w/ Kim & supplied him w/ tanks. b) US continued to give Rhee aid but did not want to have a permanent military force there. F. Vietnam 1) Vietnam had an appetite for independence (nationalism was on the rise). a) Nationalist were led by Ho Chi Minh (Vietminh) b) In 1945 the US applied pressure on France to grant independence to its former colonies in Indochina (decolonization). 2) In 1946 hostilities between France & Ho caused the US to have to side firmly w/ France against Ho. a) At same time, US urged France to make concessions to non-communist nationalists within Vietnam & prepare the country gradually for self-government. b) in 49’ French offer limited form of independence. Token independence was not enough.

48. 3) US was prepared to grant $ to the French & the Chinese Nationalists enabling them to procure the military hardware & supplies necessary to defeat communism. a) The deployment of US troops on the Asian mainland was never considered at the time. 4) Key objective was to unite the Asian periphery & the Japanese core into a single self-supporting economic area. 5) Communism on the Asian periphery would be countered by a policy of economic aid to existing anti-communist forces. 6) The 1st line of defense against communism is Asia would be a belt of offshore islands including Japan, the Ryukyu Islands, Guam, & the Philippines. a) US air bases & garrisons existed on all these islands “defense perimeter” against an Asian aggressor (Russia).

49. VII. How Successful was the Policy of Containment? A. Measured by its own objectives “containment” had met w/ reasonable success in Europe by September 1948. 1) in w. Europe the had a collection of friendly states w/ multi- party political systems & free market economies. 2) the influx of US $ was partially responsible for gradually increasing levels of output, employment & trade. 3) conditions which bread political extremism were receding. B. within w. Europe US had also begun the political & economic rebuilding of the area most open to Soviet encroachment, western Germany. 1) Marshall aid had acted as a catalyst to economic recovery there 2) In 1949 the Christian Democrats won free elections & Konrad Adenauer became the 1st Chancellor of the new Federal Republic of Germany. 3) by 1949 most of the countries of northern & western Europe were also organized into an anti-Soviet defensive pact under US leadership (NATO).