Organizational Structures

1. Organizational Structures Of Informational Texts

2. There are five basic organizational structures of informational texts and speeches: • Problem-Solution • Cause-Effect • Comparison-Contrast • Sequential • Chronological

3. 1) Problem-Solution This text or speech begins by identifying a problem or problems and then proposes one or more solutions.

4. Read the following example of a problem-solution text: The problem of drug abuse is rising in many countries. Billions of dollars are spent internationally preventing drug use, treating addicts, and fighting drug-related crime. Although drugs threaten many societies , their effects can be combated successfully. This text looks at some of the effects of drug use on society , and suggests some solutions to the problem. What are the problems identified in this first paragraph?

5. Drug abuse causes multiple problems for countries and communities. The medical and psychological effects are very obvious. Addicts cannot function as normal members of society. They neglect or abuse their families, and eventually require expensive treatment or hospitalization. The second effect is on crime. Huge police resources are needed to fight smuggling and dealing. Notice how this paragraph adds supporting details to the problems that were already mentioned in the first paragraph.

6. However, the menace of drugs can be fought. Education is the first battle. Children need to be told at home and in school about drugs. People need to be made aware of the effects so that they can maybe avoid the problem. A second approach is to increase police manpower and powers to stop dealers and to enforce the law. However, the main target should be the user. Families and counselors need to talk to people at risk. Jobs are also needed to give ex-addicts a new, positive role in society. Can you identify the three “solutions” in this paragraph?

7. In conclusion, although the problem of drugs may seem impossible to eliminate, there are concrete steps that can be taken to weaken the hold of drugs on society. The danger from drugs is too great to ignore.

8. First, state the problem/ problems Next, restate the problem/ problems with supporting details (why is it a problem) Next, suggest a solution or solutions to the problem Finally, the conclusion Structure of a problem-solution:

9. As you can see, problem- solution texts and speeches serve an important role. They inform readers about problems and suggest actions that could be taken to remedy these problems.

10. 2) Cause- Effect The cause and effect pattern is a text structure that writers use to explain how or why one thing leads to another. The cause is the reason that an action or reaction takes place. The effect is the result or consequence of that cause.

11. A cause can have more than one effect, and an effect may have several causes. Writers may explain causes only or effects only. Sometimes a text is organized in a cause-and-effect chain in which one cause leads to an effect, which causes another effect, and on.

12. Look at the example of cause and effect in the following excerpt. In April, unknown people bombed the house of our attorney. It shook the whole area, and it shook us. How could we respond to the bombing and do something that would channel the frustration of the students in a nonviolent manner? We decided to have a march, and we sent the mayor a telegram letting him know that by noon we would march on city hall. And the next day, more than five thousand of us marched in twos in an orderly line to the city hall.

13. Look at the following cause and effect chain from the paragraph:

14. 1) multiple causes leading to one effect 2) multiple effects of one cause There are two more patterns of organization for Cause and Effect texts:

15. Example of multiple causes/ one effect: Thesis statement: Air pollution is caused by the following factors: exhaust gases from cars, uncontrolled factory releases, and burning of low-quality coal for heating. MAIN IDEA 1: exhaust gases from cars SUPPORTING DETAIL: government does not have enough control SUPPORTING DETAIL:Citizens are not conscientious MAIN IDEA 2: Uncontrolled factory gases SUPPORTING DETAIL: no regular checks on gases released MAIN IDEA 3:Burning of low-quality coal for heating SUPPORTING DETAIL:other forms of energy too expensive SUPPORTING DETAIL: no governmental control The causesare exhaust, factory gases, and low quality coal and the one effect is air pollution.

16. Example of one cause/ multiple effects: Thesis statement: Watching too much TV is one of the major issues of this century, which has many effects on the physiology and psychology of people. MAIN IDEA 1: Eating disorders SUPPORTING DETAIL: TV meals SUPPORTING DETAIL: obesity MAIN IDEA 2:Communication problems SUPPORTING DETAIL: more violence SUPPORTING DETAIL: no interpersonal talk The one cause is watching too much tv, and the multiple effects are eating disorders and communication problems.

17. Examples of Key Words used in Cause and Effect texts: As a result, As a consequence, So, Since, As, Because, One reason why…

18. 3. Comparison- Contrast When you compare, you look at how two or more things are similar, that is, alike. When you contrast, you look at how things are different. Comparison and contrast is a text structure that discusses similarities and differences. There are two basic ways to organize a comparison-and-contrast speech or text • Block method • Point by point method

19. Block Method- Discuss all the features of subject one first, then discuss all the features of subject two. For each subject discuss the same features in the same order.

20. 2) Point by Point Method- Discuss one feature at a time. First talk about a feature in subject one, then discuss the same feature in subject two.

21. Look for transition words in both methods! The words “both” and “neither” can help you find similarities. The words “but” and “however” can help you pinpoint differences.

22. Read the following example of a Comparison Contrast text: Cows Vs. Whales You may automatically assume that cows and whales do not share anything in common, however they do. One of the ways that they are similar is that both cows and whales are considered a food source. It seems that cows and whales are in the same situation in terms of they are both eaten by humans, but there are also some major differences. First, many cows are slaughtered everyday. On the other hand, whales are now protected by a national law. Secondly, cows are considered to be a normal source of food in many places all over the world. However, whales are important edible animals only in a few countries. Finally, the biggest difference between cows and whales is that whales are free in the huge ocean until caught by people, and cows are raised in fields to be slaughtered for food. In what ways are cows and whales similar? How do they differ?

23. The first difference between cows and whales is the number of each animal being killed everyday. Many more cows are butchered. Of course, there are several reasons that people use cows as food. Cows are easy for farmers to breed, and they are not as clever as other animals. On the other hand, whales have been protected by a law created by The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Therefore, every whaler has been limited in number of how many whales they are allowed to catch. The reason for this law is due to the fact that whales are not as easy to breed as cows. The second difference is that cows are accepted sources of food in several countries all around the world. Almost all countries use beef as their main dish. Therefore, we have been desensitized to the fact that cows are slaughtered each day. But whales have been used as edible meat in only a few countries. Therefore, to people who are not accustomed to the thought of eating whale, slaughtering whales for food looks like a violent and unnecessary activity. Notice how the writer gives more details to the contrasts.

24. The final difference between cows and whales deals with their environments. Cows are raised by farmers in the fields that are surrounded by fences. They don't have any future. Each day they live just to wait for the day they will be killed and turned into food. On the other hand, whales are free in a huge ocean. They can swim and travel wherever they want. They don't need to wait their slaughter. They have their lives and freedom until they are caught by people. In conclusion, cows and whales share a similarity. Both cows and whales are used as a food source for humans. Most people would be appalled at the thought of a whaler catching a whale to sell for food, but how about cows? We don’t think twice about their lives. Sometimes cows and whales are both in the same situations. However, cows and whales are viewed in totally different ways and are treated completely different by most people.

25. 4. Sequential A sequential text or speech is written in a fixed order or sequence. It will often look like step-by-step instructions on how to complete a task. Do you remember the “How to Change a Tire” activity? Those instructions were written in sequential order.

26. Read this example of a sequential text: How to Get a Passport If you plans that involve traveling to other countries, obtaining a passport is critical. In many cases, a driver's license or other type of identification is not adequate proof. An adult's passport is good for 10 years, but you will need to renew 8-9 months before it expires since many countries require at least 6 months validity for entry. Those flying into the USA from another country will need a passport starting in January 2007. To obtain a passport, follow these simple steps.

27. First, obtain proof of citizenship such as a certified copy of your birth certificate (from the state where you were born), a Consular report of birth abroad, an expired passport, or naturalization certificate. Secondly, you will need to have two passport pictures made at a local merchant (check yellow pages). If you are traveling to countries that require a Visa, you will need additional photos for it. Companies like Travisa can expedite passport or Visa processing for you. The next step is to download and complete a passport application from the State Department website. What clue words do you see that indicate a sequence?

28. Once you have completed the application, go to nearest passport acceptance facility to pay and mail. The 7,000 acceptance facilities include many Federal, state and probate courts, post offices, some public libraries and a number of county and municipal offices. There are also 13 regional passport agencies, which serve customers who are traveling within 2 weeks (14 days), or who need foreign visas for travel. Appointments are required in such cases. The last step to the process is simply waiting for your passport to arrive in the mail. It will take 4 to 6 weeks, depending on time of year.

29. 5. Chronological A chronological text/speech is similar to a sequential text/speech because it is arranged in a specific order. A chronological text is arranged in the order of time of occurrence. It will start with the first event that happened and continue with each event, one after the other.

30. Read this example of a chronological text: To look at the history of Skittles candy, it's not a bad idea to take a brief glance at the history of the Mars candy company.  Frank C. Mars and his wife Ethel started the Mars company back in 1911.  Well before this time, Frank was making candy with his Mom as a young boy.  Later, he and his wife Ethel began producing candy in their Tacoma, Washington kitchen.  It was from this humble beginning, that the huge Mars candy company has grown.          Notice how the writer starts his text at the beginning and tells the events in order.

31. Now on to the history of Skittles candy...  Skittles were first sold in Europe starting around 1974.  In 1979, Skittles first started to be imported for sale in the United States.  They continued to be manufactured in Europe and exported to the US up until 1982.  At that point, Skittles sold in the US also began to be produced in the US.  A wide variety of different flavors have been released over the years.  The "Original Fruit" variety of Skittles consists of the following flavors: Orange, Lemon, Lime, Grape, Strawberry. 

32. More than 200,000,000 individual Skittles are produced each day.  Another interesting bit of Skittles candy trivia is the fact that it takes around 8 hours to put the candy coating on the outside of the fruit center.  The history of Skittles candy continues to be written as this popular candy is sold around the world.

33. When you read a chronological text/speech, look for words and phrases like next, then, and finally. Writers use such words as transitions to signal the order in which the events occurred.