1. Motivation • Process of starting, directing and maintaining physical and psychological activities • Mechanisms involved in preferences for one activity over another and the vigor and persistence of responses • Latin movere- “to move”

2. Motivational Concepts • Relate biology to behavior • Account for behavioral variability • Infer private states from public acts • Intrinsic or external • Assign responsibility for action • Explain perseverance despite adversity

3. Sources of Motivation • Drives • Internal states that arise in response to disequalibrium in an animal's physiological needs • Clark Hull (1952) • Need for homeostasis • Constancy or equilibrium of the internal conditions of the body • Respond to tensions in body

4. Sources of Motivation • Incentives • External stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior although they do not relate directly to biological needs

5. Sources of Motivation • Reversal theory • Explains human motivation in terms of reversals from one to the other opposing metamotivational states • Michael Apter (1989) • Rejects tension idea

6. Sources of Motivation • Instincts • Preprogrammed tendencies that are essential to a species' survival • Ex. Salmon • William James (1890) • Social-sympathy, modesty love • Sigmund Freud (1915) • Life instincts (sex drive)

7. Sources of Motivation • Expectations+Cognitive • What you do now is motivated by past experience • Social learning theory • Role of observation and the imitation of behaviors observed in others • Fritz Heider (1958) • Dispositional forces-lack of effort, intelligence • Situational forces-unfair situation

8. Eating • Direct internal food need • Initiate + organize eating behavior • Monitor the quantity + quality of food • Detect when enough food has been consumed + stop eating

9. Peripheral responses • Ie. Stomach • Walter Cannon (1934) • Empty stomach caused hunger • Swallowed a balloon • People w/ removed stomachs still were hungry • Foods high in proteins+calories are more satisfying than low-cal+low protein

10. Central responses • Lateral hypothalamus (LH) • Hunger center • Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) • Satiety center • After some time not totally true, type of food makes diff.

11. Psychology of eating • Janet Polovy + Peter Herman (1975) • Restrained eaters • Put limits on how much food • Unrestrained eaters • No limit • Anxiety affects retrained eaters more

12. Eating Disorders • Individual weights less than 85% of their expected weight but still controls eating because of self-perception of obesity

13. Bulimia nervosa • Binge eating followed by measures to purge body of excess calories • Vomiting, fasting, laxatives, exercise

14. Sexual BehaviorsReproduction • Hormones-secreted by gonads • Males-androgens • Present all the time • Females-estrogen • Present according to cycles • Pheromones • Chemical signals to attract suitors

15. Sexual Arousal • Male-testosterone • Female-based on cycle • The motivational state of excitement + tension brought about by physiological+cognitive reaction to erotic stimuli

16. William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Studied in lab thousands of volunteers about sex • Conclusions • Men + women have similar patterns of sexual response • Sex response cycles similar but women response slower+remained aroused longer • Women multiple orgasm men usually do not • penis size not important in sexual performance

17. William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Human sexual response cycle • Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution

18. William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Excitement • Few minutes up to more than an hour • Blood vessels in pubic region • Plateau • Level of arousal reached • Muscle tension, rapid heart beat

19. William Masters+Virginia Johnson (1979) • Orgasm • Very intense pleasure • Contraction on every .8 of a second • Male-ejaculation • Resolution • Body gradually returns to normal

20. Sexual Norm • Alfred Kinsey 1940’s • Interviewed 17,000 Americans about sexual behaviors • Norms change over time • Sexual scripts • Socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness (culture) • What to do? W/ whom? Why? • Ex. Date Rate

21. Homosexuality • 4-6% say they are attracted to same sex • 2% act on it • Genetic link (w/ twin studies) • Daryl Bem (2000) • Sex play • Childhood experiences

22. Homosexuality • Homophobia • Negative attitude towards gay people • 1973 removed homosexuality from list of disorders • Disorders were caused by society

23. Personal AchievementThematic Apperception Test (TAT) • David McCelland (1953) • Projective test in which pictures of ambiguous scenes are presented to an individual, who is encouraged to generate stories about them • http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm

24. Need for Achievement (nAch) • Assumed basic human need to strive for achievement of goals that motivates a wide range of behaviors + thinking • Higher nAch make more $

25. Attributions of success + failure • Locus of control • Intrinsic vs. extrinsic • Global vs. specific • Attribution • Judgment about the causes of outcomes

26. Attributions of success + failure • Optimistic • external • Pessimistic • internal

27. Organizational Psychology • Psychologists who study various aspects of the human work environment • Communication, leadership, job satisfaction stress, burnout • Equity theory • Workers are motivated to maintain fair+equitable relationships w/ other relevant persons outcome= to input

28. Organizational Psychology • Expectancy Theory- do desired work • Cognitive theory of work motivation that proposes that workers are motivated when they expect their efforts+job performance to result in desired outcomes

29. Organizational Psychology • 3 compounds of expectancy theory • Perceived likelihood that a worker’s efforts will result in a certain level of performance • Instrumentality refers to the perception that performance will lead to certain outcomes/rewards • Valence refers to the perceived attractiveness of particular outcomes

30. Hierarchy of Needs • Maslow’s view of basic human motives • Lower needs to be met to move up • Biological, safety, attachment, esteem, cognitive esthetic, self actualization