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Chapter 7: Human Memory

Chapter 7: Human Memory. The office. Human Memory: Basic Questions. How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory?. Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory.

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Chapter 7: Human Memory

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  1. Chapter 7: Human Memory

  2. The office

  3. Human Memory: Basic Questions • How does information get into memory? • How is information maintained in memory? • How is information pulled back out of memory?

  4. Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory

  5. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory • The role of attention • Focusing awareness • Selective attention = selection of input • Filtering: early or late?

  6. Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention

  7. Levels of Processing:Craik and Lockhart (1972) • Incoming information processed at different levels • Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes • Encoding levels: • Structural = shallow • Phonemic = intermediate • Semantic = deep

  8. Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory

  9. Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of processing

  10. Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory • Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding • Thinking of examples • Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered • Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory • Self-Referent Encoding • Making information personally meaningful

  11. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory • Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory • Information-processing theories • Subdivide memory into 3 different stores • Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

  12. Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage

  13. Sensory Memory • Brief preservation of information in original sensory form • Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second • George Sperling (1960) • Classic experiment on visual sensory store

  14. Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of sensory memory

  15. Short Term Memory (STM) • Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2 • Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit • Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal • Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information

  16. Figure 7.9 Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study of short-term memory

  17. Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” • STM not limited to phonemic encoding • Loss of information not only due to decay • Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working memory • Phonological rehearsal loop • Visuospatial sketchpad • Executive control system

  18. Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity • Permanent storage? • Flashbulb memories: unusually vivid and detailed recollection of momentous events • Recall through hypnosis • Debate: are STM and LTM really different? • Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding • Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

  19. How is Knowledge Representedand Organized in Memory? • Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies • Schemas(organized cluster of knowledge about an event or object abstracted from previous experience about the event) and Scripts • Semantic Networks • Connectionist Networks and PDP Models

  20. Retrieval: Getting InformationOut of Memory • The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval • Retrieval cues • Recalling an event • Context cues • Reconstructing memories • Misinformation effect • Source monitoring, reality monitoring

  21. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses • Retention – the proportion of material retained • Recall • Recognition • Relearning • Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

  22. Figure 7.16 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables

  23. Figure 7.17 Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention

  24. Why Do We Forget? • Ineffective Encoding • Decay theory • Interference theory • Proactive • Retroactive

  25. Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive interference

  26. Retrieval Failure • Encoding Specificity • Transfer-Appropriate Processing • Repression • Authenticity of repressed memories? • Memory illusions • Controversy

  27. Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)

  28. The Physiology of Memory • Biochemistry • Alteration in synaptic transmission • Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems • Protein synthesis • Neural circuitry • Localized neural circuits • Reusable pathways in the brain • Long-term potentiation

  29. The Physiology of Memory • Anatomy • Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia • Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus, • Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum

  30. Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory

  31. Figure 7.25 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia

  32. Are There Multiple Memory Systems? • Declarative:facts vs. Procedural: actions, skills, conditioned responses, emotional responses • Semantic: meaning vs. Episodic: temporally related • Prospective vs. Retrospective

  33. Figure 7.26 Theories of independent memory systems

  34. Improving Everyday Memory • Engage in adequate rehearsal • Distribute practice and minimize interference • Emphasize deep processing and transfer-appropriate processing • Organize information • Use verbal mnemonics • Use visual mnemonics

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